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Bankruptcy was a key institution in the development of markets in Europe. However, the territoriality of jurisdictions and legal systems made international insolvencies difficult to manage. In the middle of the seventeenth century, cities such as Lyon developed networks of cooperation by granting foreign merchants equal rights to local creditors on a reciprocal basis. However, courts were reluctant to give foreign authorities control over assets and creditors on their territory. The article examines how the Lyon commercial court changed its policy towards international insolvencies during the second half of the seventeenth century. Whereas equal treatment of foreign creditors was conditioned on the recognition of an extraterritorial jurisdiction in the medieval fairs system, it now depended on the reciprocity of the legal status granted to merchants abroad. This system of cooperation between equally sovereign courts prefigured in many ways the current situation of private international law in bankruptcy matters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, royal officials in Ayutthaya—the name for both the kingdom of Siam and its principal city—increasingly deployed ethnic labels for a new political purpose: to organize and distinguish administrative categories of foreign merchants, migrants, captives, and sojourners. The ethno-administrative categories that emerged were neither disinterested nor "natural." Rather, they were shaped and reshaped by countless acts of ethnic identification made by rulers and ruled, alike. Ayutthaya's merchant-officials, mostly of overseas origins themselves, likely adapted this approach to social organization from other port cities in maritime Asia. Cambodia's officials, probably viewing Siam as a model, followed suit soon after. As ethnic labels became shorthand references to administrative categories, each with its own set of privileges and responsibilities, ethnicity became politically significant as never before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study deals with the fate of the family of the merchant Rustea, who came to Moldova from the Podolian town of Sharhorod (modern-day Ukraine) around 1648, during the Cossack uprising. He fled the country during the reign of Gheorghe Stefan (April 1653; July 1653-March 1658), became the „friend" of Eustratie Dabija. By his generous consent, he returned to Galati, together with other merchants who have taken refuge. Rustea bought the village of Șendreni and a part of Dănceni, from Archimandrite Theona, former abbot of the Galata and Cașin monasteries. Together with the other merchants, he prepared a donation to the church in Sharhorod, without being able to materialize it. Some objects were brought and stored at the Probota monastery, then donated to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, in Jerusalem. The merciful spirit the merchant Rustea had towards the places of worship was reflected, in 1671, by his donation to Cetățuia monastery. He donated a part of Șendreni and Dănceni, the rest being sold in 1817 to Brazi monastery by the nun Anastasia (in myrrh, Anița Rustea, Ioan's wife). The documents documents comprised in this article reveal the evolution of Șendreni village, from the 17th century to the first half of the 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the moral dilemmas of Italian merchants in the slave trade in Spain. Role of the Italian merchants in the genesis of Spain's enterprise of the Americas; Involvement of the merchants in the enslavement of American Indians; Effects of the royal prohibition against enslavement on Spanish trade.

Copyright of Studia Histórica: Historia Moderna is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

During the reign of Philip III (1598-1621) the Spanish monarchy looked to open a commercial route between Seville and Manila by sending of a series of socorros to the Philippines. Only one of these armadas managed to arrive to Manila under the command of Ruy González de Sequeira, although there were various attempts made. This study analyzes the sending of these armadas within the Asian politics of the Spanish Monarchy of Philip III and Philip IV. This is an analysis that obligates us to consider not only the global context but the impact of these armadas and the politics in which they were sustained in relation to the Portuguese and Spanish empires during the Reign of Philip III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Tuscan port of Livorno was a new city open to foreign merchants and an important place of Mediterranean corsairing. This article shows how Livorno's churches were shaped by the intensive conflicts and exchanges between Tuscany and Ottoman North Africa. First, it analyses the episode of the construction of the Chiesa della Madonna, after the Knights of St. Stephen seized at sea a small wooden statue considered miraculous. Rivalries between lay confraternities and Franciscan brothers over the possession of the object provide information on local devotional practices and, more broadly, on the social composition of the commercial elites of the port city. The article then focuses on the history of the foundation of the altar of St. John the Evangelist in the church of the Madonna - also known as the «Altar of the Corsicans». This altar was not, however, that of the entire Corsican nation, but belonged to four related merchants from Cap Corse, enriched by maritime trade with Algiers and Tunis. The foundation of the altar thus allowed the four patrons to return a part of the profits earned through their good relations with Muslim merchants, profits that contributed to the embellishment of the new city. This altar was a means for these four Corsican merchants to claim their noble status and their membership of an emerging municipal elite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with problems related to the use of different weight systems in international relations during the Late Bronze Age. Three case-studies have been chosen: the compensation for the murder of foreign merchants in Ugarit ("the Karkemish shekel"); the reimbursement of a debt at Emar ("the big weight of the country of Subaru"); the tribute of the king of Ugarit to the king of Hatti ("the heavy Hittite shekel"). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores whether or not Flemish commercial networks reached the interior of the Iberian Peninsula and if so, how they functioned. By analysing the case of the Valladolid region through hitherto unexplored sources, this study shows that the economic opportunities offered by this region did not pass unnoticed by the Flemish merchants. While previous research focused on the conceptual dichotomy between ambulant and sedentary migration, this article shows that in practice, the Flemish merchant community in the Valladolid region covered the whole spectrum between these two positions. In fact, the hybrid nature of this Flemish merchant community seems to have been its strength as it connected different trade networks to each other and permitted the transfer of commercial expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Article examines the early modern revival and subtle transformation in what is here called the merchants' chapter of Magna Carta and then analyzes how lawyers, judges, and government officeholders invoked it in the new American federal courts and in debates over congressional power. In the U.S. Supreme Court in the early 1790s, a British creditor and an American State debated the meaning and applicability of the merchants' chapter, which guaranteed two rights to foreign merchants: free entry and exit during peacetime, without being subjected to arbitrary taxes; and, in wartime, the promise that their persons and goods would not be harmed or confiscated, unless their own king attacked and confiscated English merchants. In other words, no harm to enemy aliens, except as retaliation. Tit for tat. The idea that reciprocity was a fundamental mechanism of international (and interpersonal) relations became something like a social science axiom in the early modern Enlightenment. Edward Coke claimed to find that mechanism in the merchants' chapter and publicized it to lawyers throughout the emerging British Empire and beyond. Montesquieu lauded the English for protecting foreign commerce in their fundamental law, and Blackstone basked in that praise. American lawyers derived their understanding of the merchants' chapter from these sources and then, in the early Republic, stretched the principle behind it to protect foreign capital, not just resident merchants. The vindication of old imperial debt contracts would signal to all international creditors that, in the United States, credit was safe. Federalists then invoked the chapter outside of the courts to resist Republican attempts to embargo commerce and sequester foreign credit. For Republicans, doux commerce had become the Achilles heel of the great Atlantic empires: their reliance on American trade could be used to gain diplomatic leverage without risking war. For Federalists, economic sanctions threatened not just their fiscal policy but their entire vision of an Atlantic world that increasingly insulated international capital from national politics. They all agreed, however, that the role of foreign capital in the American constitutional system was a central issue for the new and developing nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incidents at sea between warships and military aircraft often involve more than provocative actions – they may be aggressive and can sometimes result in death and destruction. In view of the low threshold of a resort to armed force by one State against another that would bring an international armed conflict into existence, it is rather difficult to determine whether incidents at sea remain below that threshold. Similar, albeit less difficult problems arise with regard to forceful measures taken by States against foreign merchant vessels. Here it is important to clearly distinguish between law enforcement at sea and the exercise of belligerent rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Studia Histórica: Historia Moderna is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article examines business activities in the Portuguese Atlantic island of Madeira in the 18th century to provide understanding on the role played by Scots in the construction of the British Empire. Topics covered include the introduction of merchant James Gordon to the Madeira business, the development of trading networks as depicted in the papers of the Gordons of Letterfourie, and the opportunities offered by the Madeira trade to Catholics.

A typology of Middle-Age towns is here proposed, based on their economic functions (based especially on production, commerce or services), related to Braudel's economic spaces (local, middle or largest). In this way could be possible individuate the peculiar and most significant economic function of all European towns, and not only in the Middle Ages. Towns are so divided, in this sense, into beehive-towns (for their productive importance), cobweb-towns (for their preeminent commercial functions) and nest-towns (for their propensity to offer every kind of service for foreign merchants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study investigates economic integration of immigrant entrepreneurs by comparing them with their native-born counterparts, and examines whether and how entrepreneurs' socio-cultural integration affects their economic integration. Research Design & Methods: This study is based on data of the Social Surveys conducted by the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics in 2008, 2010 and 2012. The sample included 1133 native-born and 576 immigrant entrepreneurs. Findings: Socio-cultural integration is not necessarily associated with economic integration and a high income. Immigrants can earn the same and even more than nativeborn entrepreneurs do, even if they have a low level of socio-cultural integration. The impact of socio-cultural integration on immigrant entrepreneurs' income varies by their origin. Implications & Recommendations: Understanding integration of immigrant entrepreneurs and the factors affecting their income will help policy-makers to facilitate their economic advancement. Contribution & Value Added: Based on Berry's concept, I propose a model of entrepreneurs' integration. The model stresses interrelations between socio-cultural and economic integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the study of court-ordered mediation-arbitration between the accession of Queen of England Elizabeth I in 1558 and the death of Anne, Queen of Great Britain in 1714. Topics discussed include Privy Council recording its activities to assist foreign merchants between 1558 and the accession of King of England and Ireland James I in 1603, government policy being in favour of foreign trade, and arbitrators being instructed to mediate a settlement.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is first, to describe the characteristics of a pop-up store in an international context, second, to investigate the motivating factors for its choice and third, to analyze its role in the retail internationalization process. Design/methodology/approach – A multiple-case study was adopted. Research was carried out using secondary data sources, social media observation and semi-structured interviews with senior managers in charge of the international development and management of pop-up stores. A conceptualizing content analysis was conducted both manually and with NVivo software. Findings – The main results cover the following aspects of an international pop-up store and highlight the differences between this choice of FOM and other store formats: key characteristics: location, design and atmosphere, merchandise mix, and store events are very creative in order to attract foreign consumer attention; choice motivations: three motivations were found, which were first, to test and adapt the concept with foreign consumers possibly unfamiliar with such a store concept, second, to raise and sustain the international profile of a retail brand, and third, to develop relationship networks with stakeholders in foreign markets; role in the retail internationalization process: a dynamic approach is adopted as role varies from mode switch at the entry stage to mode combination at the further expansion stage. Research limitations/implications – The results of this research suggest avenues for future research, particularly in relation to how the concept of the international pop-up store will evolve over time. Practical implications – This research provides guidelines for international retail managers wishing to choose a pop-up store as a foreign operation mode (FOM). Originality/value – This research provides a new insight into the characteristics, choice motivations and management of a pop-up store in an international context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During a time when religious animosities were reaching their peak in Medieval Europe leading up to the violent crusades, Christians, Jews, and Muslims residing in close proximity in Medieval Spain experienced a period of relative peace, prosperity, and cultural exchange. This historical episode, referred to as La Convivencia, or the coexistence, is a puzzle to many period historians. This paper argues that this anomalistic period arose due to the emergence of commerce, which generated cooperation and mitigated conflict among these heterogeneous groups, à la the Doux-Commerce Thesis of the Scottish Enlightenment. Commercial exchange between Christians, Jews, and Muslims was established through the use of safe-conducts, a promise of protection sold to foreign merchants. This paper details the operation of safe-conducts and the civilizing role that commerce played among Christians, Jews, and Muslims in Medieval Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article endeavours to critically assess the role played by the Turkish merchants in the Indian Ocean trade during the seventeenth century. While the Turkish merchants’ trading activities in Persia were marked by frequent disturbances occasioned by political incursions, their trade in India was completely free of such troubles. The Turkish merchants’ preferred routes were (a) through northern Iran, touching Qazwin and Tabrez, to Turkey and (b) through Qandahar, Isfahan, Merv and Yezd. Among the Turkish merchants, those belonging to Chalebi group were apparently more active. Some were substantial shipowners as well. The various aspects of the multidimensional trade have been examined with the help of a variety of sources. An attempt has been made to shed some light within the contours of contemporary trade, traders and ruling elite of those times and this is the central argument of the article. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Through reading theSejarah Melayu, this article suggests that foreigners are fundamental to the constitution of Malay sovereignty. Malay polities, located at the crossroads of international trade, thrived on commerce with foreign merchants. Power and wealth necessarily engage the foreign, as does destruction. TheSejarah Melayupays attention to how foreign powers are identified, tested and incorporated, in a compact that constitutes Malay sovereignty and polity. This process, in which a universal kingly line transforms into Malay sovereign, creates a language that enunciates the terms of alliance between local and foreign. A single process both incorporates the foreign and establishes the ritual language of Malay sovereignty. Malay sovereignty thus constituted takes diarchical forms in texts and in history. TheSejarah Melayumodel of diarchic sovereignty is contrasted with the political constitution of contemporary Malaysia derived from colonial India, in which a singular, exclusive, autochthonous, native Malay culture claims sovereign rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Electronic Turkish Studies is the property of Electronic Turkish Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revue Belge de Philologie & d'Histoire is the property of Societe pour le Progres des Etudes Philologiques et Historiques and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article outlines the commercial and financial activities of commercial networks active in the 'Venetian' eastern Mediterranean between the loss of Cyprus (1571) and the onset of the War of Candia (1645). The goal of the article is to present the results of recent research on early modern Mediterranean trade and finance, drawing attention to some promising areas of investigation that have been overlooked by scholarship and that constitute part of the author's own work in progress. The central question is: how did traditional Mediterranean networks and trade fare in the age of global expansion? In other words, did Mediterranean trade networks experience an evolution in their structures similar to the rest of the world? An attempt is made to answer this question through an analysis of the activities of Greek, Venetian, and English mercantile and financial networks in the eastern Mediterranean, showing the peculiarities of the interplay between trade and finance that underpinned the economy of the Venetian Stato da Mar . This attempt highlights two phenomena at play within the 'Venetian Mediterranean': firstly, that foreign operators began directly financing Venetian imperial administrative structures, and secondly, that the number of Venetian merchants involved in these operations increased as new players entered the financial game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social scientists draw important lessons for modern development from the medieval Maghribi traders who, it has been argued, lacked effective legal mechanisms for contract enforcement and instead relied on informal sanctions based on collective ostracism within an exclusive coalition. We show that this claim is untenable. Not a single empirical example adduced as evidence of the putative coalition shows that a coalition actually existed. The Maghribi traders made use of the formal legal system in order to enforce agency agreements in long-distance trade. A subset of the traders did form a web of trusted business associates that contributed to informal contract enforcement, but this was very different from the hypothesized coalition, in neither being exclusive nor having a clearly defined membership. The Maghribi traders combined reputation-based sanctions with legal mechanisms, in ways that resemble the practices of medieval European merchants. We find no evidence that the Maghribi traders had more 'collectivist' cultural beliefs than their European counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies concluded that a private-order institution based on a multilateral reputation mechanism was particularly important in governing agency relations among the Maghribi traders who operated in the Muslim Mediterranean. The legal system and a bilateral reputation mechanism were particularly important among the Genoese traders. Initial cultural, social, and political factors led to this institutional distinction, while the incorporation of culture in the resulting institutions influenced subsequent institutional developments. In particular, the particularities of the late medieval European institutions contributed to the rise of the modern-impersonal-markets in Europe. The analysis also substantiates the contention that private-order institutions can support sophisticated exchange and market-promoting policies should take this into account, particularly in countries lacking an effective court system. An article by Edwards and Ogilvie challenges this analysis. It alleges that the Maghribis, like European traders, relied on court enforcement and a bilateral reputation mechanism in which a narrow social circle responded to opportunism. This article shows that Edwards and Ogilvie's analysis and conclusions are wrong. It refutes each of their empirical claims and presents additional pieces of evidence supporting the institutional distinction conjecture. The discussion is structured around the methodological challenge associated with comparative and historical institutional analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestic and foreign merchants in the late Ming Dynasty had a profound influence on Tang Xianzu, whose thoughts incorporate the spirit of the merchants. In his works, Tang created various images which are a combination of Confucian scholar and knight-errant. In addition, he changed his world view when observing the foreign merchants, which is evidenced by the image of Liu Mengmei in The Peony Pavilion, who is stimulated to cherish his ambitions after knowing foreign merchants and their treasures. From this, we know the spirit of the merchants helped Tang Xianzu to some extent form his thoughts on literary enlightenment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the role of merchants from the Ottoman Empire, particularly Greek merchants, in the trade of Sibiu, Transylvania from 1614 to 1623, providing tables with information on trade. Topics include the provision of Turkish products by foreign merchants, opposition to Greek merchants by Saxons, and demand for foreign products by guilds in Sibiu. Also addressed are customs duties leveled against foreign goods, the use of customs registers as historical sources, and the role of Prince Bethlen of Transylvania in promoting trade.

This article discusses commercial trade in Seville, Spain during the late 16th to mid-17th centuries. It examines the influence of foreign merchants who used the ports of Seville for commerce between the Americas and Europe. The author comments on the relations between the Spanish and these foreigners using historical documents from archives of Seville. He gives particular focus to tax lists, which help to identify the relative populations of foreign merchants and native Spaniards in the city as well as their contributions to the region's commercial activity.

Copyright of Socio-Economic History / Shakai-Keizai Shigaku is the property of Socio-Economic History Society and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article deals with the mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion in the Hanse, a medieval mercantile organization of towns and traders. The focus is on the rules governing the trade and life in the overseas settlements of the Hanse (the Kontore), especially in Bergen, Norway. Sources concerning the rules in Bergen cast new light on how traders (rather than towns) were included and excluded in the Hanseatic structures. They also show how some of the exclusive tendencies were stronger in the context of the Kontore than in the Hanse at large. The analysis investigates rules on the formal admission to and ejection from the Bergen Kontor, as well as rules on obedience, secrecy, rites of incorporation, social life and conflict prevention. The study discloses how the Bergen Kontor, and the Hanse in general, turned from an inclusive into an exclusive body. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The growing power of the great merchant houses in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europe manifested itself, amongst other things, within the evolving local custom of the Flemish Triumphal Entry (the Joyeuse Entrée). The foreign merchants, although guests of the city, seized the opportunity to display their specific interests and needs by sponsoring and financing some of the monuments, always juggling three different standpoints: the city, the crown, and their own. Their ability to voice their specific interests and needs clashed with the function and tradition of the local custom of the Joyeuse Entrée and with the local city-assigned designer of the Entry, who evoked the city interests. In Antwerp these foreign voices, though perceptible, were blended within the Entry's overall plan. The foreign merchants' involvement in the local scenery of the Joyeuse Entrée, nonethe less, did compel a gradual shift in the local character of the Joyeuse Entrée into a more international vocabulary. This evolution was further advanced once the custom of the Joyeuse Entrée migrated with the aid of the Flemish merchants and Portuguese humanists to Portugal. In Lisbon the foreign merchants' voice seems no longer muted within those of the city, and in some cases it even seems to contradict the city's interests. The Joyeuse Entrée that had initially represented a uniformed local discourse was augmented by the more multifarious discourse of the foreign merchants to voice more universal concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article addresses the problem of international trade networks in the 16th-century Low Countries and Antwerp, Belgium and considers the role of foreign merchants in international trade. Merchants considered the connections between the spatial network of late medieval and early modern commercial cities in their creation of human network. In the case of the Augsburg firm of Haug, Langenauer and Link, its range extended to other parts of Europe through network connections. To advance their affairs abroad, merchants capitalized on kin-network connections that are associated with kith networks, which were founded on friendships and acquaintances. Guilds also provided social networks to merchants where they were able to enforce contracts and social norms and exchange information.

The article presents a study on the relations between Croatia and England in the late Middle Ages, focusing on traces of the presence of Croatian seamen in the Southern England harbor town of Southampton. Most of the Croatian seamen who eventually settled in England were serving in the Venetian merchant navy but kept their Croatian identity as seen on their sepulchral monuments such as the Croatian confraternity tombstone. A broader historical context of the European maritime trade in the 15th century is presented including the trade routes used in this period and the changing importance of different English ports such as Southampton for foreign merchants over the century.

This article analyzes the transformations of commerce in the Tacna-Arica region after Peru's independence. The most relevant aspect of this process was the massive arrival of foreign merchants, especially British, who intensified the integration of the regional economy to world-wide economic networks. Moreover, the article examines the role economic actors from the colonial period, such as Creole merchants and muleteers had, under the new scenario generated after Peru's independence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article refers to the emergence of the Greeks as a small ethnic group of merchants in Victorian England and proposes comparisons with other trading groups in London, developing three main points. The first section configures trade migrations in the relevant historiography and argues the link between ethnic community, family firms and individual entrepreneurs in Greek commercial networks; the second section indicates common characteristics of Greek immigrants in England: their Ottoman past and their trade experience in the Italian Peninsula; and the third section concludes with two representative case studies, one of a medium-sized merchant house, and the second representing the longer-lasting and more successful case, a firm that diversified into a global network in direct response to nineteenth-century "Anglobalization". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Thirteenth-century England was a commercial backwater whose trade was dominated by foreigners. To accommodate and encourage foreign merchants, England modified its legal system by creating legal institutions that were available to both domestic and foreign traders. Among the most important of these institutions were streamlined debt collection procedures and mixed juries composed of both Englishmen and foreigners. By introducing institutions that treated locals and foreigners equally, England created a level playing field that enabled English merchants to become increasingly prominent in the later Middle Ages. England''s ability to modernize its law was facilitated by the secular nature of English law, the representation of merchants in Parliament, and legal pluralism. Medieval England contrasts sharply with the early modern Ottoman Empire. The latter created special institutions for foreign merchants, which eventually put Ottoman Muslims at a competitive disadvantage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents a study on a written document which showcased the commercial privilege awarded by Moldavian voivoide Alexandru cel Bun to merchants of Lwow, Poland on October 8, 1408. It states that the document is essential for showing the voivoide's efforts of introducing Moldavia into an international economic circuit and improve its relation with the Polish kingdom. It also mentions that the document is the first to legislate a customs regime made by Moldavian voivoides.