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This study aims to test the endogeneity among green growth, foreign debt, and aging population for Indonesia and Malaysia using a vector autoregression approach from 1975 to 2023. This study can provide important insights into how economic and demographic factors interact in the context of green growth and foreign debt, as well as offer more informed policy recommendations for both countries. Endogeneity analysis in this context will help design more effective and adaptive policies to address global and local economic dynamics toward achieving sustainable development goals. The key findings of this study indicate similar results in both countries, showing causality between the aging population and foreign debt. Furthermore, there is a one-way relationship where only green growth affects foreign debt. Additionally, there are divergent findings between the two countries: green growth and aging population do not influence each other in Indonesia, whereas in Malaysia, it is only aging population that affects green growth. Recommendations from this study suggest that both countries need to promote sustainable health for aging populations through the development of productive investments and risk management in the use of foreign debt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Subject. The formation of new centers of global influence predetermines corresponding changes in the global balance of power. At the same time, the lack of real reforms of the global monetary system allows the United States to continue to set the rules of the game in the global economy, despite its increasing crisis potential. In this regard, there is a need to identify the driving forces capable of producing constructive changes in the global monetary order. Objective. A summary of the practice of using the US dollar to suppress global competition and maintain American superiority in international economic relations. Results. The control of the international monetary sphere by the country — hegemon of the world economy can be traced at all stages of the development of international economic relations (IER). Currently, the hegemonic country’s self-interest from issuing international liquidity, with non-resistance to such a policy on the part of all other IER participants, hinders the development of effective anti-crisis measures and worsens the general condition of the world economy. Scattered attempts to overcome the failures of global currency regulation at the local level (including through the use of digital technologies) seem to be ineffective, since they are not systemic in nature. Conclusions. A qualitative reform of the global monetary system is impossible without combining the efforts of the world’s largest economies to counter the destructive policies of the country that issues key international liquidity. Otherwise, the costs of financial crises become an insurmountable obstacle to the global economy entering a path of sustainable development.

This paper explores the origins of German banks' risk‐taking in the years preceding the 1931 crisis. The 1920s were marked by a large and prolonged increase in capital flows into Germany, chiefly from the United States and the United Kingdom. This coincided, at the individual bank level, with a rise in leverage and a fall in liquidity. We examine possible connections between the two phenomena. Our analysis is based on a combination of historiographical work and statistical modelling based on a newly hand‐collected bimonthly dataset on German reporting banks from 1925 to 1935. Bank by bank we examine the effects of foreign inflows on decisions related to leverage, lending, and liquidity. The Dawes Plan of 1924 and the relative absence of a too‐big‐to‐fail (TBTF) environment allow us to mitigate endogeneity concerns. We suggest that while capital inflows did not seem to impact banks' liquidity decisions, their impact on leverage was non‐negligeable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The government of Pakistan has had to take out a loan as a result of the country's significant budget-trade deficits, problems with foreign currency, and big savings-investment gaps. The purpose of this research is to find out the trend analysis, and to enquire about the repercussions of foreign debt, which was taken on by the previous three administrations in Pakistan over the period of 2008-2022. According to the data that is currently available on the country's foreign debt, the foreign debt was reported at a somewhat lower level while the PPP was in power from 2008 to 2012, followed by the PML (N) from 2013 to 2017, and then the PTI from 2018 to 2022. According to these facts and figures, the previous PTI administration was responsible for accruing the most amount of external debt. According to the results of this trend analysis, it is recommended that any and all forms of borrowing be carefully avoided. On the other hand, those types of loans that are essential should be used in those development initiatives that are more productive. Through the implementation of investment-friendly policies, inflows of direct foreign investment should be increased into projects that provide greater returns. It is necessary to make improvements that are beneficial to the taxation system in order to raise more money via taxation and bring the gap in the budget deficit down. Policymakers should also support integrated fiscal and monetary policies, since this is essential for achieving sustainable economic development, maintaining sustainable levels of foreign debt, and reducing pressure on the economy as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Pakistan's reliance on foreign debt has been a major concern for policymakers and economists for many years. The country's debt-to-GDP ratio has increased significantly in recent years, raising questions about the sustainability of the country's debt burden and its implications for economic growth and development. The research begins by providing an overview of the role of foreign debts in financing Pakistan's developmental needs and meeting its budgetary requirements. It then examines the foreign debts taken by the last three governments and analyzes the implications of foreign debts on the country's economy, fiscal policies, and external relations. Nexus to the phenomena, the data was collected on twelve development indicators of World bank which include consumer price index/inflation, external debt stock, annual GDP growth, government consumption expenditure, households' consumption (percentage of GDP), official exchange rate, total debt service and trade (percentage of GDP). The research discusses the best practices for managing foreign debts and provides recommendations for minimizing our dependence on foreign debts. These recommendations include develop long term debt management strategy (Lowering borrowing costs, Enhancing debt sustainability Strengthening investor confidence, Promoting transparency and Supporting economic growth), Diversify funding sources, Focusing on economic growth (by increasing exports, Improved creditworthiness, Attraction of foreign investment, Enhanced debt servicing capacity and Reduced reliance on foreign borrowing), Improve debt sustainability analysis (by Identifying risks, Setting debt limits, Developing debt management strategies and Providing early warning signs), Strengthen debt management capacity (by Developing human resource, Better coordination with other government agencies, Improved debt data management and Developing a robust legal and institutional framework), promoting foreign direct investment, enhancing tax collection, reducing non-development expenditures, and improving the efficiency of public sector organizations. Moreover, this research also suggests the establishment of an independent Debt Management Office to ensure the prudent management of foreign debts. Overall, this research provides valuable insights and recommendations for senior management professionals in Pakistan to address the issue of our dependence on foreign debts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper augments the sparse literature on the inflationary impact of foreign debt in Brazil while addressing methodological caveats in previous studies. We depart from the linearity assumption and employ two nonlinear techniques: the nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model and a Markov Switching Regression (MSR) to investigate the connection between foreign debt and inflation within a multivariate framework. The analyses consider the presence of structural breaks via assessing variable stationarity using the Zivot and Andrew unit root test and incorporating a residual-based cointegration test proposed by Gregory and Hansen. Additionally, we apply a multiple structural breakpoints test by Bai and Perron to determine the presence of structural breaks in the impact of foreign debt on inflation. Our findings robustly indicate that the domestic money supply has a statistically significant positive effect, while the nominal effective exchange rate has a negative effect on inflation in both the short and long run. The NARDL model reveals that only positive changes in foreign debt have a statistically significant negative effect on inflation in the short run, whereas both positive and negative foreign debt changes significantly affect inflation in the long run. The results from the MSR model are generally consistent with those of the NARDL model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Indonesia's economic growth experiences unstable conditions from year to year, The study explores their impact on Indonesia's inability to overcome government spending problems by comparing three alternative sources of Indonesian state income to support economic growth, namely foreign debt, Sukuk, and bonds. Methods: The research uses a quantitative approach derived from secondary data in the form of time series data. Foreign debt has a negative effect on Indonesia's economic growth, while sukuk and bonds have a positive effect on Indonesia's economic growth. Results: The simultaneous result is 0.948, meaning that the independent variables (foreign debt, Sukuk, and bonds) have an influence and can be explained by 94.8% of Indonesia's economic growth. Meanwhile, the remaining 5.2% is explained by other variables that are not in this research. This indicates that the foreign debt sukuk and bonds variables have a big influence on Indonesia's economic growth in 2016-2023. Conclusion and suggestion: Foreign debt must be controlled properly by the state so that an economic crisis does not occur in Indonesia. Apart from that, the government must increase the issuance of sukuk and bonds to meet the needs of the deficit APBN.

This study aimed to analyze the impact of external debt on economic growth and inflation for emerging market economies for the period 1995-2020 using the panel data method. To this end, the study used the data on 12 countries listed in the Morgan Stanley Capital Index (MSCI) Emerging Markets Index. The results of the panel cointegration analysis showed that changes in external debt stock affect economic growth in the opposite direction and inflation rate in the same direction. According to the country-specific results of the panel cointegration analysis, external debt had a negative impact on economic growth in all countries except Mexico, Egypt, India, and Türkiye. External debt increased inflation in all countries except China, Egypt, India, South Africa, and Thailand. The Bootstrap panel causality test results showed a unidirectional causality from economic growth to external debt stock in China, India and Thailand, and a bidirectional causality in China. A unidirectional causality was also found from external debt stock to inflation in Colombia, and a unidirectional causality from inflation to external debt in China, India, Peru, and Thailand. Based on the cointegration analysis results, it is recommended that external debt should be used to finance more productive investments in order to ensure sustainable economic growth in Brazil, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, and Thailand. The panel causality test results also showed that economic growth in China, India, and Thailand requires more external resources. Based on these results, it is recommended to reduce external debt in order to reduce inflation in Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, Philippines, and Türkiye.

Introduction: Indonesia's economic growth experiences unstable conditions from year to year, The study explores their impact on Indonesia's inability to overcome government spending problems by comparing three alternative sources of Indonesian state income to support economic growth, namely foreign debt, Sukuk, and bonds. Methods: The research uses a quantitative approach derived from secondary data in the form of time series data. Foreign debt has a negative effect on Indonesia's economic growth, while sukuk and bonds have a positive effect on Indonesia's economic growth. Results: The simultaneous result is 0.948, meaning that the independent variables (foreign debt, Sukuk, and bonds) have an influence and can be explained by 94.8% of Indonesia's economic growth. Meanwhile, the remaining 5.2% is explained by other variables that are not in this research. This indicates that the foreign debt sukuk and bonds variables have a big influence on Indonesia's economic growth in 2016-2023. Conclusion and suggestion: Foreign debt must be controlled properly by the state so that an economic crisis does not occur in Indonesia. Apart from that, the government must increase the issuance of sukuk and bonds to meet the needs of the deficit APBN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pakistan is facing the problem of balance of payment since 1970. The core objective of this research work is to analyze the effect of various determinants of BOP in Pakistan over 1971 to 2022. The ARDL testing approach used for estimation. The results reveal that M1, inflation and economic growth rate are the uppermost negatively influential determinants of BOP. Results also show the direct positive correlation between BOP and foreign debt. The interest rate negatively affects the BOP in the lengthy period but its impact is positive in the near run. Furthermore, a huge part of the national income is transferred abroad to meet the obligations towards foreign countries. These findings suggest that the country should not depend only on foreign debt; rather there should be uniformity between macroeconomic and domestic economic policies of the country. The empirical findings suggest that such economic policies are required which can control the rate of inflation and foreign debt in the country. This will bring stability which ultimately leads to improve the issue of BOP in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to analyze the impact of external debt on economic growth and inflation for emerging market economies for the period 1995-2020 using the panel data method. To this end, the study used the data on 12 countries listed in the Morgan Stanley Capital Index (MSCI) Emerging Markets Index. The results of the panel cointegration analysis showed that changes in external debt stock affect economic growth in the opposite direction and inflation rate in the same direction. According to the country-specific results of the panel cointegration analysis, external debt had a negative impact on economic growth in all countries except Mexico, Egypt, India, and Türkiye. External debt increased inflation in all countries except China, Egypt, India, South Africa, and Thailand. The Bootstrap panel causality test results showed a unidirectional causality from economic growth to external debt stock in China, India and Thailand, and a bidirectional causality in China. A unidirectional causality was also found from external debt stock to inflation in Colombia, and a unidirectional causality from inflation to external debt in China, India, Peru, and Thailand. Based on the cointegration analysis results, it is recommended that external debt should be used to finance more productive investments in order to ensure sustainable economic growth in Brazil, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, and Thailand. The panel causality test results also showed that economic growth in China, India, and Thailand requires more external resources. Based on these results, it is recommended to reduce external debt in order to reduce inflation in Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, Philippines, and Türkiye. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foreign indebtment is one of the most well-known methods used by states for reasons such as correcting the deteriorated income-expenditure balance, supporting development projects, providing capital for investments, needing financial resources for modernization efforts, etc. Unplanned and careless indebtment have led to some negative developments for these administrations over time. Egypt is an example of this. In Egypt, one of the privileged provinces of the Ottoman Empire, the Caisse de la Dette publique d'Égypte or Commission of the Public Debt (Borç Sandığı) was established on May 2, 1876, depending on the foreign borrowings made during the administration of Khedive Ismail Pasha. The period of Khedive Ismail Pasha is important in terms of showing how a ruler played a decisive role in the destiny of his country and people. The Khedive's mission, dreams and goals to modernize Egypt and make it a part of European civilization, combined with the ambitions of the capitalists in pursuit of easy wealth in Egypt, have been the most important reasons of increasing foreign indebtedness. The factors that led to the establishment of Caisse de la Dette in Egypt before the Düyûn-ı Umûmiyye are discussed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The dominant approach of international organizations and financial institutions to development finance focuses on incentivizing and mobilizing private capital to achieve the international community's goals in terms of economic, social and environmental development while the public sector's financial capacity is supposedly restricted. Yet, this approach dismisses the nature of money as being endogenous, which implies that domestic banking systems can accommodate the demand for finance. The essential constraint, notably from the perspective of low-income countries, is not finance per se but the lack of foreign exchange. To distinguish true from false finance gaps, it is necessary for a country to know whether its investment plans rely on foreign currency. This analysis develops a guide to public investment based on the balance-of-payments-constrained growth model. It helps policymakers develop investment plans by assessing reliance on foreign exchange and the space available to make public investments via the domestic banking system. To illustrate its practical use, the guide is applied to a simple stylized example of a national investment plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the article is to substantiate the measures regarding diplomatic support of the Ukraine's foreign public debt in the conditions of a critical budget deficit. The analytical basis of the proposals are the results of the assessment of trends in the development of international flows of debt capital and the world experience of diplomatic assistance to countries in the process of overcoming their debt crisis. It has been established that the process of international movement of loan capital, in which countries are active participants regardless of the economic development level, is characterized by dynamic trends of value growth. A critical factor in the growth of public debt in Ukraine is the decrease in the value of GDP and the inability to cover the budget deficit as a result of high military and social costs. It has been proved that the minimization of risks associated with the State's dependence on international borrowing is possible under the condition of effective diplomatic support of the external debt at all stages of its formation and maintenance. Ukraine has positive results of diplomatic debt support (favorable conditions for obtaining new loans, partial restructuring of existing debt). However, in the future, under conditions of preservation of current trends, the growth of foreign debt will pose a threat to the economic security of the State. Based on the analysis of alternative options for overcoming the debt crisis, the authors substantiate the expediency of Ukraine's diplomatic request to international creditors for preferential debt restructuring; active cooperation with foreign countries regarding mediation in interaction with international financial organizations in the direction of initiating special programs of financial support for Ukraine. Diplomatic support of foreign public debt should occur simultaneously with the further integration of Ukraine into the European Union, measures to stimulate economic growth in the country, which will contribute to increasing the international investment attractiveness and credit ratings of the national economy.

Nigeria is the largest economy in Africa and the largest exporter of crude oil in Africa, yet Nigeria has a huge foreign debt portfolio and weak institutions. It is against this backdrop that this study examines the impact of foreign debt and institutional quality on economic performance in Nigeria. Data used for the analysis were quarterly data that ranges from 1996Q1 to 2019Q1. Foreign debt service was used as a measure of foreign debt while corruption control and government effectiveness were used as measures of institutional quality. Economic performance which is the dependent variable was measured using Gross Domestic Product. The study also examines how institutional quality influences the relationship between foreign debt and economic performance in Nigeria. Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model was used to specify and estimate the relationship between the variables. The result of the analysis indicates that foreign debt has an insignificant negative effect on economic performance in the short run and also negative insignificant effect in the long run too, corruption control has a significant positive effect on economic performance only in the short run, Government effectiveness does not have a significant effect in the economy, being the two; the short run and the long run, on that account corruption control influences the relationship between foreign debt and economic performance significantly and negatively only in the short run but also positively and insignificantly in long run. Mechanism should be put in place to ensure that foreign debts are properly utilized on the projects they were meant for. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Introduction/Main Objectives: This research aims to analyze the effect of internal factors, especially foreign debt, liquidity, and firm size, and also external factors, especially the exchange rate, on hedging decisions, with profitability as the control variable. Background Problems: Exchange rates are always affected by uncertainty. To ensure a company does not suffer losses, it will implement risk management, such as hedging. This is in accordance with the recommendation of the Ministry of SOEs to undertake hedging in the context of risk management. But in reality, not all state-owned enterprises do this. Novelty: This research adds profitability as a control variable, because this research does not involve the profit of the company, and focuses on how the company minimizes the risk of potential losses. Research Methods: The research used quantitative data, which is secondary data taken from the annual financial reports of state-owned enterprises listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange for the 2016 to 2020 period that are accessed through the website www.idx.co.id and the annual reports of state-owned enterprises that are accessed through their official websites. Data analysis techniques that were used are descriptive statistics test, multicollinearity test, and logistic regression test. Finding/Results: The results show a significant effect from foreign debt and firm size on the hedging decisions of state-owned enterprises in Indonesia, while liquidity and the exchange rate did not show a significant effect on the hedging decisions of state-owned enterprises in Indonesia. Conclusion: This research shows that state-owned enterprises in Indonesia focus more on their foreign debt and firm size, than their liquidity or the exchange rate, in their decision to hedge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an empirical, dynamic simultaneous equation model (DSEM) for Brazil with 22 equations and variables, we show that foreign income is a driver of economic growth besides semi-endogenous technical change. With a balance-of-payments constraint and endogenous terms of trade, the major mechanism is (i) world GDP driving exports, (ii) exports paying for imported capital goods, which (iii) enter a production function increasing output and the foreign-debt/GDP ratio and (iv) increase the endogenous labour force, and (v) slightly reduce human capital growth. The savings gap drives foreign debt and interest rates up and make the model unstable. Permanent increases of human capital increase the R&D/GDP ratio, labour-augmenting productivity, and GDP. A policy to increase the R&D/GDP ratio leads to more human capital, labour productivity and GDP levels. Both knowledge policies reduce the debt/GDP ratio. A lasting shock on the terms of trade reveals that there is no Harberger–Laursen–Metzler effect. The results hold in the presence of endogenous terms of trade, foreign debt, net foreign income, and net current transfers from abroad, and non-Walrasian (dis-)equilibrium variables: inflation and changing inventories for the goods market, and unemployment in the labour market. Policy should strengthen the weak link from R&D (research and development) to technical change and make education more attractive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was conducted using comparative quantitative and qualitative analysis of World Bank and International Monetary Fund data for 1989-2020 and 2000-2020. Two-factor linear econometric models of economic growth in 11 countries of Central and Eastern Europe (depending on their exports and debt) were built on the basis of such analysis. The study also relied on data from the Pew Research Center's Spring 2019 Global Attitudes Survey regarding EU citizens' attitudes toward integration. The research findings were used to examine the causes and consequences of European integration for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Since 2004, when the first wave of EU enlargement took place, the combined weight of the economies of Central and Eastern Europe in relation to the EU has increased from 6.7% to 10.8% in 2020. On the other hand, none of the countries that have joined the EU have reached Europe-wide labor productivity. Assessment of the possible accession of other countries of the former eastern bloc revealed that Kazakhstan, where productivity in 2020 reached 58.4% of the average achieved in the EU, has the most enabling economic environment. In this context, Kazakhstan outperformed Bulgaria, where such a parameter amounted to 53.5%. During 1995-2000, the multiple of the ratio between the minimum and maximum levels of per capita GDP in the group of countries under study ranged from 6.3 to 7.7 times. Fifteen years after the first wave of accession to the EU, this figure has decreased to 2.5 times. Proposals to reduce regional economic inequality based on the econometric models have been developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nel volume La guerra capitalista, gli autori Brancaccio, Giammetti e Lucarelli (2022) sostengono che alle radici delle recenti tensioni internazionali vi siano gli imponenti processi di centralizzazione dei capitali che hanno caratterizzato l’ultimo trentennio, e la sempre più marcata tendenza del fenomeno a travalicare i confini degli schieramenti geo-politici. I paesi usciti vincitori dalla competizione sui mercati globali (in particolare Cina, paesi arabi e Russia) starebbero usando i saldi attivi in dollari accumulati negli anni scorsi per ‘scalare’ la proprietà dei capitali americani, e il governo degli Stati Uniti starebbe reagendo a questa minaccia con variegate restrizioni all’ingresso dei capitali stranieri nella proprietà dell’industria nazionale e con misure protezionistiche di politica commerciale. Secondo il punto di vista degli autori, questo conflitto economico starebbe generando una spirale di ritorsioni a catena, moltiplicando in tal modo il rischio di veri e propri conflitti militari. Questo modello interpretativo viene messo a confronto con le principali interpretazioni concorrenti circa il ruolo degli interessi materiali nella genesi dei conflitti militari, e si discutono alcune interessanti implicazioni dell’analisi rispetto al problema del design delle istituzioni di regolazione delle relazioni economiche internazionali.

This paper augments the sparse literature on the inflationary impact of foreign debt in Brazil while addressing methodological caveats in previous studies. We depart from the linearity assumption and employ two nonlinear techniques: the nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model and a Markov Switching Regression (MSR) to investigate the connection between foreign debt and inflation within a multivariate framework. The analyses consider the presence of structural breaks via assessing variable stationarity using the Zivot and Andrew unit root test and incorporating a residual-based cointegration test proposed by Gregory and Hansen. Additionally, we apply a multiple structural breakpoints test by Bai and Perron to determine the presence of structural breaks in the impact of foreign debt on inflation. Our findings robustly indicate that the domestic money supply has a statistically significant positive effect, while the nominal effective exchange rate has a negative effect on inflation in both the short and long run. The NARDL model reveals that only positive changes in foreign debt have a statistically significant negative effect on inflation in the short run, whereas both positive and negative foreign debt changes significantly affect inflation in the long run. The results from the MSR model are generally consistent with those of the NARDL model.

In a country, economic development is the process of how that country can develop. National development is carried out in order to achieve a developed country and make the people there prosperous. Economic development cannot be separated from a country, the process and impact reap many pros and cons in various ways. In its continuity, economic development will not occur without being accompanied by the provision of large capital funds. Often the government brings in funds or, let's say, borrows funds from foreign countries to support the success of economic development. As a result, foreign debt has piled up, hampering economic development. Foreign debt that occurs in developing countries, especially Indonesia, cannot be avoided. Foreign debt occurs due to various factors, one of which is limited human resources that are less effective, which indirectly forces a country to borrow funds from foreign countries because an ineffective workforce does not produce sufficient financial resources for economic development. From an Islamic legal perspective, foreign debt contains the element of usury, why is that because foreign debt always contains interest, in Islam anything that contains usury is clearly not permitted. Of course, the government, especially the Indonesian government, must pay attention to this matter.

This study intends to conduct empirical testing related to the effect of foreign debt, foreign direct investment, and inflation on economic growth in 7 ASEAN Countries during the period 2012-2020. The research method uses a quantitative approach with populations using Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The data analysis technique uses panel data regression with skunder research data type. The results showed that partially foreign debt had a negative and significant effect on economic growth. Meanwhile, foreign direct investment has a positive and significant effect on economic growth. Meanwhile, inflation also has a positive and significant effect on economic growth. However, simultaneously, foreign debt, foreign direct investment, and inflation affected economic growth in 7 ASEAN countries during the 2012-2020 period.

Introduction/Main Objectives: This research aims to analyze the effect of internal factors, especially foreign debt, liquidity, and firm size, and also external factors, especially the exchange rate, on hedging decisions, with profitability as the control variable. Background Problems: Exchange rates are always affected by uncertainty. To ensure a company does not suffer losses, it will implement risk management, such as hedging. This is in accordance with the recommendation of the Ministry of SOEs to undertake hedging in the context of risk management. But in reality, not all state-owned enterprises do this. Novelty: This research adds profitability as a control variable, because this research does not involve the profit of the company, and focuses on how the company minimizes the risk of potential losses. Research Methods: The research used quantitative data, which is secondary data taken from the annual financial reports of state-owned enterprises listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange for the 2016 to 2020 period that are accessed through the website www.idx.co.id and the annual reports of state-owned enterprises that are accessed through their official websites. Data analysis techniques that were used are descriptive statistics test, multicollinearity test, and logistic regression test. Finding/Results: The results show a significant effect from foreign debt and firm size on the hedging decisions of state-owned enterprises in Indonesia, while liquidity and the exchange rate did not show a significant effect on the hedging decisions of state-owned enterprises in Indonesia. Conclusion: This research shows that state-owned enterprises in Indonesia focus more on their foreign debt and firm size, than their liquidity or the exchange rate,in their decision to hedge.

Pakistan is grappling with a significant debt crisis and seeking assistance from the IMF and allied nations to alleviate the situation. This has aroused the interest of the academic community to understand the intricacies of the debt trap and explore potential solutions. This study examines how foreign debt affects the economic growth of Pakistan by analyzing selected macroeconomic variables for the period 1990-2020. The results of dynamic autoregressive distributed lag models show that Pakistan's economic growth performance is significantly and adversely impacted by debt servicing and exchange rate fluctuations. From the Granger causality results, it is evident that there is a neither unidirectional nor bidirectional causal relationship between GDP and foreign debt. This rejects the notion of a direct relationship between the two, as proposed by previous studies. The study also finds that foreign debt negatively affects the economic performance of Pakistan's economy via its effects on inflation, exchange rate and debt servicing. The paper offers useful policy recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capitalism has perpetuated class antagonism which breeds dissatisfaction amongst people in a bid to seek equality and justice in the distribution of power and economic resources. This study analyses International Trade and Imperial Precursors into the New Nigerian Economy in the 19th and 20th Century. Using data generated from secondary sources and descriptive analysis, it has been realized that the Nigerian economic elite play negative role in the economic dependency processes of the country. Finding also reveals that, Government policies in Nigeria are foreign oriented in nature, therefore, favoring foreign western economies at the detriment of Nigerian interest. The study conclude that there is a need to channel our energies to producing for internal needs and consumptions but these calls for a change in the values of principle of the indigenes, there are far too many acts of indiscipline and self-indulgence on the part of the generality of our people in all the starter of our society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Capitalism has perpetuated class antagonism which breeds dissatisfaction amongst people in a bid to seek equality and justice in the distribution of power and economic resources. This study analyses International Trade and Imperial Precursors into the New Nigerian Economy in the 19th and 20th Century. Using data generated from secondary sources and descriptive analysis, it has been realized that the Nigerian economic elite play negative role in the economic dependency processes of the country. Finding also reveals that, Government policies in Nigeria are foreign oriented in nature, therefore, favoring foreign western economies at the detriment of Nigerian interest. The study conclude that there is a need to channel our energies to producing for internal needs and consumptions but these calls for a change in the values of principle of the indigenes, there are far too many acts of indiscipline and self–indulgence on the part of the generality of our people in all the starter of our society.

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Liberalization, regionalization, and globalization have made the inflow of goods, services, and capital easier to break through the regional boundaries of a country, and the barriers have continued to decrease for global trade or business. cross border. The consequences of liberalization, regionalization, and globalization demand the existence of a country's economic transparency which can cause concerns for every country, including Indonesia, especially regarding the stability of its currency exchange rate. During the Covid-19 Pandemic, at the end of March 2020, the Rupiah exchange rate against the US Dollar weakened by 18% compared to its position in December 2019 (before the Covid-19 Pandemic). The exchange rate of the Rupiah against the US Dollar is continuously fluctuating and tends to weaken. The volatility of the Rupiah exchange rate against the US Dollar and its large volatility over a long period can disrupt the economy as a whole. The purpose of this research is to analyze the factors that influence the volatility of the Rupiah exchange rate to the US Dollar. This research uses inferior information on duration (time series) from 2009 to 2020 (information per year). The results of the research can be concluded that the JCI, Trade Balance, Foreign Loans, Inflation, and Interest Rates have an important influence on the volatility of the Rupiah exchange rate to the US Dollar either simultaneously or partially. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]