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The Indian Constitution recognises and accommodates the social and legal diversity of the country. It is interesting to note that it leaves the family outside the discipline of Fundamental Rights. Unlike many other Constitutions, neither does it contain a Fundamental Right to family nor does it disturb it by bringing the personal laws within the domain of law. The term Uniform Civil Code implies that it is applicable to all as a general rule and many support this view. Personal laws are an integral part of religion and, therefore, the enactment of Civil Code is an interference with religion. The vast majority of Muslim in India adheres to this view that the Uniform Civil Code would interfere in the personal law. The present paper aims to examine the feasibility of the implementation of Uniform Civil Code in India in the context of the recent push by the government of India. Recognising the interplay between the fundamental rights and the constitutional directives in the context of the debate around Uniform Civil Code, the paper also outlines in brief Part III and Part IV of the Constitution and their relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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As of April 2021, nine states and the District of Columbia had enacted state-specific paid family leave (PFL) programs, offering partial wage replacement to parents after the birth of a child. The Biden Administration also proposed the development of a national solution through the American Families Plan. Despite these advances, concerns with workforce disruptions and economic costs have hindered wider adoption of PFL. While studies have documented the potential health benefits of PFL for women and babies, less is known about the mechanisms that lead to PFL potentially impacting women's mental health. This mixed-methods study is based on focus groups with over 100 women in four states with operating programs and a secondary analysis of Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) data. It presents evidence of how PFL may facilitate longer leave that possibly leads to improved mental health outcomes by providing more time at home. It also demonstrates that PFL may directly support mental health by providing women with increased financial security and work/life boundaries. Implications of PFL design features on access and shortcomings are also discussed. These results aim to inform national or additional state-level PFL programs that may benefit working women, their families, and their employers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the impact of an extension of paid family leave in the Czech Republic from 3 to 4 years on children's long-term outcomes. We find that an additional year of maternal care at age 3 has an adverse effect on children's human capital investments and labor market attachment. Affected children are 6 percentage points less likely to be enrolled in college and 4 percentage points more likely to be not in education, employment, or training (NEET) at age 21–22. While the negative impact on education is persistent, with an 8 percentage points lower probability of completing college by the age of 27, the effect on NEET is short-lived. The results are driven by children of low-educated mothers, whose education and NEET outcomes are affected by as much as 12 percentage points. Our findings are consistent with previously documented positive effects of universal childcare on child long-term outcomes and with the fact that the extended maternal care induced by the extension of family leave led to a postponement of public kindergarten enrollment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines Bishop Benjamin Hoadly's decision in 1744 to ordain the son of his enemy and political opponent Bishop Francis Atterbury. Osborne Atterbury was the black sheep of the Atterbury family having left Oxford without a degree and lived as a seaman before deciding to enter the Church. Hoadly's decision to ordain him was, it is suggested here, an example of 'transferred nepotism' which was the idea that churchmen had a duty to support and maintain the sons of other clergy, especially when they entered the Church. So the demands of professional duty to the son of a brother bishop outweighed the personal animosity which had existed between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During medical school, residency, or fellowship, many trainees struggle to balance their careers with starting a family. Some may feel the optimal time for parenthood is after completion of training, but the effect of increasing age on fertility is a real consideration for female physicians.1 Several studies have explored the impact of pregnancy and parental leave during surgical residency, yet little has been published on these topics during psychiatry training. This is surprising as psychiatry residents often address the challenges of integrating work and parenthood with their patients, yet it has not traditionally been within the culture of medicine to openly discuss this with colleagues. It is critical to address pregnancy and parenthood routinely during training and in the literature to reiterate the importance of work–life integration. In this article, we discuss current practices for psychiatry residents and advocate for the development of a standardized policy across psychiatry training programs that considers multiple aspects of childbearing including maternal mental health, family leave, and infertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

College is now the second largest purchase a family will make. Yet the college industry lacks transparency around how they price their product, leaving families unable to understand what an end price might be before committing the time and energy for the application process. Coming changes to the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), the largest seen in more than a decade, give advisors an opportunity to provide additional value to their clients. It is one more touch point in the lifetime relationship between advisors and their clients. This article will cover the use of the FAFSA, the coming changes and their impact on families, and how advisors can leverage the changes to provide added value for their clients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Income pooling in the context of geographically stretched households, that is, households with migrants who maintain close relations and economic ties with household members left behind, is examined in this article. The focus is also directed at evaluating whether migration assists in reducing food deprivation in the household of origin. A model to generalise the relationship between the migrant and the family left behind is presented and then applied to Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe. The analysis is tripartite. First, the determinants of migrant remittances are established; second, tests of income pooling between migrant remittances and income of the household at origin are conducted; and third, the impact of migration on the family left behind is examined in the context of food deprivation. Results show that gender is not a determinant of remittances, but it matters for income pooling of remittances with income at the household of origin on frequent and low‐cost purchases. The evidence provided challenges the idea that a household is a separate and independent unit composed of co‐residents eating from the same pot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A precolonial language contact event between languages in the Nguni group of the BANTU family and extinct undocumented languages in the Khoekhoe branch of the KHOE family left an enduring impact on the linguistic landscape of South Africa. isiXhosa and isiZulu gained a massive lexis of Khoekhoe loanwords that remains understudied. Prior research has focused primarily on the behaviour of click consonants during loan, and more general descriptions of phonological and morphological adaptations are lacking. This paper describes some general adaptive processes, with the especial aim of facilitating the improved detection of loanwords. By comparing the extant Khoekhoe-branch languages Nama, Damara, and Kora with the loaned Khoekhoe-branch material preserved in isiXhosa and isiZulu, details of the phonology and morphology of the undocumented Khoekhoe donor languages are inferred. Finally, comparative material from the Kalahari-branch languages in the KWADI-KHOE family is also introduced to compensate for lacunae in the historical linguistic record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Only a few states have adopted a paid family leave (PFL) policy in the United States of America. Local media described the 2019 Oregon PFL legislation as "the most progressive" policy in the country, with coalitions as crucial policy advocates. This case study applies the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) to examine policy learning and negotiated agreements as causal mechanisms to explain the adoption of the PFL. We identified three modes of policy learning: previous policy cycles, learning from other coalitions, and learning from community organizations. ACF explains the evolution of negotiated agreements based on the stability of coalition belief systems, including consensus on leave time, inclusivity, and cost-sharing contributions. ACF helps describe how coalitions adopted progressive ideas such as equity. However, ACF's elements that allow a deeper exploration of narratives were missing. Future studies should include interviews with coalition members and compare state policies to assess strategies. Future policy initiatives could integrate feedback from community organizations into policy strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A woman's life is a myriad of experiences and none, perhaps, leaves a more lasting impression on her than motherhood. The child-birth event along with all its highs and lows not only has a deep psychological impact on her as a person but also impacts her career in many ways. Using interpretive phenomenological analysis, we have studied the lived experience of women who returned to work in corporate settings after maternity leave. Our study found that not only do they go through an emotional upheaval during this phase, but they also see a marked shift in the way they approach their careers. A woman's natural instinct to mother her child comes in conflict with another natural (and equally important) desire to succeed in the workplace. Most women in our study experienced a stalling/break in their careers after childbirth and wished they had a mentor to assist them in transitioning back to office life. Besides trying to evaluate if childbirth was perceived as a threat or potential impediment to a high-flying career, we also explored how women were treated in their work environments, and whether their coworkers helped the women to cope during this phase. While the women in our study wanted to achieve success and satisfaction both within their families and careers, they found it most challenging to do so. Keywords: Working mothers, Interpretative phenomenology, New mothers, Maternity, India, Corporate workplaces We need women at all levels, including the top, to change the dynamic, reshape the conversation, to make sure women's voices are heard and heeded, not overlooked and ignored. (Sandberg, 2013), Introduction The above words by Sheryl Sandberg, former COO of Facebook, sum up the importance of women in the workplace but also point to the need for society to listen [...]

Position: The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine strongly supports paid family leave and medical leave to optimize the health of pregnant people and their families and to improve health equity. All types of leave should include full wages and benefits and job protection to ensure that parents can care for themselves and their children. The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine endorses the implementation of a national policy that would provide fully-paid sick leave in addition to a minimum of 12 weeks of universal paid family and medical leave with job protection to optimize health and well-being across generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study investigated the awareness and utilization of maternity protection and work-family balance support policies among dental hygienists in dental hospitals and clinics.Methods: We surveyed 200 dental hygienists. Twenty-two who did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded, leaving 178 participants for analysis. The self-administered 48-item questionnaire gathered information on demographics, workplace details, policy awareness, government knowledge, and suggestions for improvement. Results: Awareness of maternity and family support programs significantly differed with age, marital status, number of children, and clinical experience. Dental hygienists in general hospitals and university hospitals reported greater ease of utilizing these policies compared to those in dental clinics. Among the participants, 27.7% took pre- and post-maternity leave, 26.6% took parental leave, 16.9% had reduced working hours during pregnancy, 15.8% had reduced working hours during childhood,and 8.5% during family leave. To promote program uptake, participants suggested mandatory implementation across workplaces (68.4%), expanded support for substitute workers (48.6%), and increased education and promotion of government support (42.4%). Conclusion: While most dental hygienists were aware of the Maternity Protection and Work-Family Balance Assistance Policy, utilizing it proved challenging due to several factors. Organizational policies or practices may not fully implement this policy, while workplace culture could discourage its use. Unfair treatment and the lack of available substitutes further hindered access. To prevent career interruptions for dental hygienists due to pregnancy, childbirth, childcare, and family care, and to maintain career continuity, the dental community and government should establish a multifaceted social support system. This system should prioritize several key areas: strengthening policy promotion, fostering a family-friendly atmosphere, improving management and supervision of policy implementation and developing a robust support system for substitute personnel.

Objective: Parental and other caregiving leave is important to postdoctoral fellows, yet there is no field-wide recommendation for leave policies among clinical neuropsychology postdoctoral training programs, which is of particular relevance given the two-year requirement for eligibility for board certification. The aims of this manuscript are to (a) discuss general guidelines and recommendations for leave policies, both informed by prior empirical evidence as well as relevant existing policy guidelines from various academic and healthcare organizations, and (b) use vignettes to provide possible solutions for potential leave scenarios. Method: A critical review of literature on family leave from public policy and political science, industrial-organizational psychology, academic medicine, and psychology was conducted and findings were synthesized. Results and Conclusions: Fellowship training programs are encouraged to adopt a competency-based model that permits flexibility in leave during training without necessarily requiring an extended end date. Programs should adopt clear policies and make this information readily available to trainees and think flexibly about training options that best meet the training needs and goals of each individual. We also encourage neuropsychologists at all levels to engage in advocacy for broader systemic supports of trainees seeking equitable family leave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizations utilize various options to help employees reduce work-life conflict, from formal family-friendly benefits to non-institutionalized measures. Although these forms of organizational support are beneficial in theory, few studies examine the circumstances under which these options could become useful to employees in Asian corporate culture. This study explores how formal and informal supports affect employees' work-life conflict across companies in Hong Kong. Using a repeated cross-sectional survey with longitudinal design, we find that different combinations of family-friendly policies affirm higher levels of control over working time. However, having control over working time shows little effect as the moderator in reducing work-life conflict, whereas the presence of a supportive supervisor is more important in this scenario. These findings suggest that provision and uptake of family-friendly policies should be coupled with supportive supervisors to create an informative corporate culture and wider social conducts at the workplace, when addressing employee work-life conflict. The findings of the study offer companies in Hong Kong some unique insight into the effectiveness of formal and informal family-friendly practices in fostering a family-supportive work environment. The findings of the study also impact policy debates in Hong Kong by offering concrete recommendations for restructuring the present family-friendly policies and the work environment, and to improve the work-family conflict of Hong Kong employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulation of military AI may take place in three ways. First, existing rules and principles in IHL is already or could be extended via reinterpretation to apply to military AI; second, new AI regulation may appear via "add-ons" to existing rules, finally, regulation of military AI may appear as a completely new framework, either through new state behavior that results in customary international law or through a new legal act or treaty. By introducing this typology, one may identify possible manners of regulation that are presently under-researched and/or ignored, for example how Rules of Engagement (ROE) may be a way to control the use of military AI. Expanding on existing scholarship, the articles discusses how military AI may operate under different forms of military command and control systems, how regulation of military AI is not only a question of "means" but also "methods" of warfare and how the doctrine of supervisory responsibility may go beyond the doctrine of command responsibility. In the case that fully-automated Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) are available and considered for use, it is suggested that their use should be prohibited in densely populated areas following the same logic as incendiary weapons. Further, one could introduce certain export restrictions on fully-automated LAWS to prevent proliferation to non-state actors and rogue states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes two aspects of an exploratory international online study conducted by written questionnaire in the years 2021-2022. One focus of the study was on the personal importance/meaning participants ascribed to their Jewish Lublin roots. A second focus was on the role Lublin stories played in participants' lives, i.e., the presence/absence of such stories in family life, the age/stage of life when Lublin stories were first heard, the content and tone of these stories, and whether a relationship could be detected between the narratives heard and importance ascribed by the participants to their Lublin roots. The participants were those who, or whose ancestors/families, originated from Lublin but left the city decades ago, mostly during the twentieth century. These participants now live in countries around the world. Preliminary quantitative information and qualitative analyses hinted at differences among the study's sixty respondents. These differences were most often associated with (a) the period of history during which respondents or their families left Lublin; (b) how closely/directly the lives of those who left had been touched by events of the Holocaust; and (c) how much time had elapsed, and how many generations came, between those who left Lublin and their now-living descendants. Selected results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to develop a benchmark method to identify best practices in higher education across the country, in relation with management practices of academic productivity gender gaps and their impact on family responsibilities. This paper uses a qualitative approach to collect relevant information from official web pages from sixteen international universities previously selected. All information related to best practices policies implemented in each university was charted and assigned to one of the following categories for further analysis: ranking, gender policies, gender gaps, academic productivity, and childcare responsibilities. Results from this study revealed that the main best practices implemented in the included universities were practices related to harassment prevention, gender equality at college admission, development of protocols, leadership training, scholarships for study and research programs, adequate infrastructure, childcare financial support, flexible work schedules, family leave policies, improvement of the work environment and the development of departments in charge of follow-up and regular assessment of the proposed strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association of state paid family and medical leave policies with the likelihood of breastfeeding, postpartum depression symptoms, and attendance of the postpartum visit. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study that used 2016-2019 data from PRAMS (Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System) for 43 states and Washington, DC. We describe the association of state paid family and medical leave generosity with rates of breastfeeding, postpartum depression symptoms, and attendance of the postpartum visit. Logistic and Poisson regression models tested the significance of state paid family and medical leave coverage generosity after controlling for individual respondent sociodemographic characteristics, with sensitivity analyses for respondents with deliveries covered by Medicaid insurance. RESULTS: Of the 143,131 respondents, representative of an estimated 7,426,725 population, 26.2% lived in eight states and DC with the most generous paid family and medical leave, 20.5% lived in nine states with some paid family and medical leave, and 53.3% lived in 26 states with little or no paid family and medical leave. Overall, 54.8% reported breastfeeding at 6 months or at time of the survey, ranging from 59.5% in the most generous paid family and medical leave states to 51.0% in states with the least paid family and medical leave coverage. Postpartum depression symptoms varied from 11.7% in the most generous states to 13.3% in the least generous states (both PC.001). State differences in postpartum visit attendance rates (90.9% overall) did not differ significantly. After adjusting for respondent characteristics, compared with states with the least paid family and medical leave, breastfeeding was 9% more likely (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR] 1.09, 95% CI, 1.07-1.11) in states with the strongest paid family and medical leave coverage and 32% more likely (aIRR 1.32, 95% CI, 1.25-1.39) in analyses limited to respondents with deliveries covered by Medic-aid insurance. A more generous state paid family and medical leave policy was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of postpartum depression symptoms compared with states with the least paid family and medical leave (adjusted odds ratio 0.85, 95% CI, 0.76-0.94) and a modest but significant increase in postpartum visit attendance (aIRR 1.03, 95% CI, 1.01-1.04) among respondents with deliveries covered by Medicaid insurance. CONCLUSION: Respondents from states with strong paid family and medical leave had a greater likelihood of breastfeeding and had lower odds of postpartum depression symptoms, with stronger associations among respondents with deliveries covered by Medicaid insurance. Despite major potential health benefits of paid family and medical leave, the United States remains one of the few countries without federally mandated paid parental leave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the disparity between the aspirations of academic employers and academic parents for gender equality in family leave policies in the UK Higher Education sector. The gender pay gap in the sector is linked to the transition to parenthood, but there is a lack of support for this transition in higher education institutions. The study uses the Capability Approach to analyze gender norms and power dynamics in parenting. The findings highlight parents' desire for gender equality, their experiences of workplace prejudice, and the influence of gender norms on their pursuit of gender justice. The article emphasizes the importance of organizational culture, human resources, and line managers in promoting and supporting parental leave. Further research is needed to explore how gender justice is incorporated into employer strategies and implemented in practice. The document provides a list of references and citations from various sources on gender, work, and organization, offering diverse perspectives and research findings on topics such as the gender pay gap, parental leave policies, and gender equality in academia. [Extracted from the article]

Hong Kong society has put family-friendly workplace policies under serious discussion, but the investigation of the views of employers remains insufficient. Adopting the structure-agency paradigm, this study used survey data to examine how structural constraints in business and the subjective world of individual employers influence their support to paid family leave. We found that industry categories were significantly associated with employers' support but not the size of their enterprises. Employers' personal stereotypes of family caregivers and their awareness of relevant laws did not exert significant independent effects on their policy support, but the significant interaction of the two suggested that employers with knowledge of regulations were less likely to formulate attitudes towards paid family leave based on their own stereotypes. Policy practices therefore need to consider the rationality of employers in the local contexts of Hong Kong, and aim to integrate legal education with de-stigmatisation of family caregivers in advocacy programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social lives of brown bears (Ursus arctos) are still largely a mystery, partly because of the difficulty in studying the topic. Here we report on the interactions between 2 Himalayan brown bear family units at a dump site roughly 53 km outside of Srinagar, Kashmir, India. Brown bear cubs from 2 different mothers were observed playing together between 3 September and 16 October 2021, on 13 discrete occasions. These play sessions lasted 20–80 minutes (mean H 24.3 ± 4.59 standard deviation). Each interaction ended with the family units leaving independently. The relationship between the mother bears is not known, though we speculate that they may be related. Although the interactions do not constitute adoption, they do demonstrate a level of tolerance by mother bears toward cubs to which they did not give birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the employee representatives on the board of directors and board of supervisors were adopted by the Company Law in 1993, they have been powerless and gradually neglected by the policymakers and the enterprises. However, to realize the ambitious commitments regarding the labour protection in the agreement 'in principle' for a new the EU-China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI), reached by the EU and China on December 30, 2020, China must promote the companies to enforce the labour laws consciously by improving these employee governance mechanisms. Under the Company Law, both the employee directors and employee supervisors are mandatory for the SOEs, while the private companies can decide whether they install the employee directors. Due to the dramatic increment of the employees in the private enterprises brought out by the excessive pursuit of efficiency rather than equity in the reform of SOEs and the failure of the labour laws as the external regulations of companies to isolate the workers from the intolerable exploitation in the large private companies the Amendment of Company Law, released on December 24, 2021, has realized the significance of employees' protection in the large private enterprises. But it has not yet changed the shareholders' meeting centred model, which fundamentally restricts the functions of the employee directors and employee supervisors. In this regard, this article suggests that the new Company Law should eliminate the supreme power of shareholders' meeting and impose the definite duty of complying with the labour laws upon the decision-makers of the corporations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION: Given variability in parental leave policies in gastroenterology (GI) with little data on outcomes, the American College of Gastroenterology conducted a survey to assess policies and outcomes. METHODS: A survey was distributed to American College of Gastroenterology members with questions on demographics, fertility, pregnancy outcomes, and parental leave policies. RESULTS: There were 796 responses, with 52.5% female individuals. Many (57%) delayed parenting. High rates of infertility (21%) and pregnancy complications (68%) were observed. Satisfaction with parental leave policies in GI was low (35%). DISCUSSION: Our survey highlights the need for policies that support the well-being of our GI colleagues and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article, titled "Moroni 12," recounts the journey of the narrator, who is guided by their father to hide the plates of Mormon and Ether in a new location. The narrator is instructed to avoid the sons of Laman and returns to Akimel Hakathi to visit their wife and son. However, they are reluctant to leave their family behind. With the help of Mormon, the narrator evades Laman's patrols and reaches a new Cumorah. They encounter a sea of grass and other survivors, but they hide from them due to fear of being discovered. Eventually, the narrator is captured by a group of people who make them tell their story. They are released and continue their journey, living in secrecy and trading with other groups. The narrator's ultimate goal is to secure the plates and then disappear. The article is written by Dennis Clark, a retired librarian and poet. [Extracted from the article]

This paper discusses the imaginary about migrant kin destinations and the lives of the family members left behind. It reflects on the mechanisms of connection to places the subject has never been that knows through stories told by people whom themselves have never been but have experienced separation and loss as remaining behind in a family characterized by a history of emigration. Through self-reflexive auto-ethnography, this article focuses on the development of virtual ties to imagined places through the establishment of emotional geographies in the second generation left behind. The paper engages with the theorization of two stages in the lives of those who remain in the homeland: (In)-decision to stay, (Re)-solution to stay, which can result in Hesitation about staying in second generation left behind and eventually can lead to an Exit-action. Applying the concept of 'familial habitus', it demonstrates how in belonging to a family affected by displacement, stories about distant kin operate as living entities that form bonds with people, places, events with which the subject is unfamiliar. The social remittances provided through visits back can enhance the left behind exitus and emancipation opening for a potential liminoid experience of break with the limitations of patriarchal culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By presenting a two-sector DGE model, this paper investigates the relative misallocation coefficients for capital and labor within three industries in China from 1993 to 2018, then discusses the effect of factor misallocation and factor substitution elasticity on the labor income share. The following three conclusions were reached. (1) The overall labor income share reduced due to the industrialization before 2007, but after 2007 it increased by promoting the proportion of services. (2) Compared with the situation without barriers, the cross-industry factor misallocation reduced the proportion of labor in manufacturing by 44% during industrialization and in services by 5.05% during de-industrialization, respectively. (3) Eliminating the factor misallocation could raise the labor income share by 4.6% in industrialization, but it shows a weak effect during de-industrialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Families are under increasing stress from the rising cost of raising children, especially single-parent households and those where both parents work. Lack of paid family leave and dependable child [...]

Extensive empirical health research leverages variation in the timing and location of policy changes as quasi-experiments. Multiple social policies may be adopted simultaneously in the same locations, creating co-occurrence that must be addressed analytically for valid inferences. The pervasiveness and consequences of co-occurring policies have received limited attention. We analyzed a systematic sample of 13 social policy databases covering diverse domains including poverty, paid family leave, and tobacco use. We quantified policy co-occurrence in each database as the fraction of variation in each policy measure across different jurisdictions and times that could be explained by covariation with other policies. We used simulations to estimate the ratio of the variance of effect estimates under the observed policy co-occurrence to variance if policies were independent. Policy co-occurrence ranged from very high for state-level cannabis policies to low for country-level sexual minority-rights policies. For 65% of policies, greater than 90% of the place-time variation was explained by other policies. Policy co-occurrence increased the variance of effect estimates by a median of 57-fold. Co-occurring policies are common and pose a major methodological challenge to rigorously evaluating health effects of individual social policies. When uncontrolled, co-occurring policies confound one another, and when controlled, resulting positivity violations may substantially inflate the variance of estimated effects. Tools to enhance validity and precision for evaluating co-occurring policies are needed.