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Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is a topic that is routinely examined in the empirical literature. Given an individual’s inability to control their phone use, PSU is commonly related to a host of negative outcomes including declines in academic and work productivity, sleep difficulties, risky driving and psychopathological concerns. Though PSU may be related to issues in individuals lives, there is currently a paucity of empirical works that evaluate methods to reduce PSU. Prior work has shown switching one’s phone display to grayscale is an efficacious method in reducing phone use. Though, it has not been previously studied if this reduces PSU. This study consisted of 133 college students who came to the lab on two separate visits. After receiving baseline data, 63 participants had their phone’s screen display changed to grayscale and told to not switch it back until after their second visit. Participants who had their phones in grayscale exhibited a significant decrease in PSU, anxiety, and screen time during their second visit. Though it should be noted, no significant changes to depression were found and the decrease in anxiety experienced by grayscale condition participants may not be clinically significant. Aside from these considerations, it appears smartphone use in grayscale is less gratifying, which makes it easier for individuals to regulate their smartphone use. A discussion of study limitations and implications for future research is outlined.

Excessive smartphone use has been related to numerous negative outcomes including anxiety, depression, sleep deficits, and lower life satisfaction. Though empirical works have made these associatio...

Despite extensive efforts in a better understanding of associations between death anxiety and various factors, efforts studying the complex associations across those variables are still limited. This study was conducted to better understand the possible complexity between death anxiety and myriad of factors, by first extracting the most important features, and then assessing the complexity of variables by checking all pairwise interaction terms. We found most of associated factors of death anxiety are related to the concept of attachment or caring for loved ones. Ill-effect attachment with positive associations with death anxiety included factors such as attachment to the physical side of oneself, being alone before death, and the possibility of death being the end of us. On the other hand, supernatural conceptions of worldviews such as believing in God, believing that the soul is separate from body, and being religious buffer against the death anxiety.

Although social exclusion violates the basic needs of sense of control, self-esteem, meaningful existence, and belongingness, it is unknown if fear of missing out (FoMO) or attachment anxiety contributes to one's sense of ostracism and each of these basic needs. We aimed to identify if baseline scores in attachment anxiety and/or FoMO predict how excluded an individual feels after playing an online ball-tossing game designed to include or exclude them and if these constructs tap into basic needs that ostracism has shown to threaten. A sample of 193 young adults participated in this online study. After completing measures of demographics, FoMO, and attachment anxiety, each participant played Cyberball, a virtual ball-tossing game. Under the guise of playing with two other human participants, this paradigm consists of pre-programmed conditions of either inclusion, which entails receiving 10 of the total 30 ball tosses, or exclusion, which consists of receiving the ball only twice at the beginning of the game. Participants then completed post-measures of state ostracism, basic needs, and attention checks and were debriefed regarding the nature of the Cyberball game. We found that FoMO, but not attachment anxiety, predicted how ostracized one felt. Likewise, FoMO was inversely related to control, belongingness, and meaningful existence. Attachment anxiety did not predict any of the basic needs examined in the study. We conclude FoMO may be less about the experience one misses out on and more about the fear of being excluded. Future research is needed to evaluate if people experience increases in state FoMO while excluded and if baseline mood influences our findings.

Desmond and Hancock (2001) proposed that two types of cognitive fatigue can arise depending on the nature of a task: active or passive. The purpose of this study was to use electroencephalographic indices of task engagement and a candidate marker of strain to differentiate these two fatigue states. Participants ( N = 84) performed a generalized flight simulation task for 62 min under either active, passive, or control conditions. Passive fatigue was characterized by reduced EEG engagement and initially elevated and stable ratios of Fz theta to POz alpha power compared to active fatigue. No performance differences were found between the fatigue conditions; however, an overall speed-accuracy trade-off was observed from pre to post fatigue induction. These results support theoretical and empirical distinctions between active and passive fatigue and have potential applications for developing augmented cognition technologies to deliver appropriate fatigue countermeasures in automated operational environments.

The current study evaluated the validity of commercially available electroencephalography (EEG) cognitive state metrics of workload and engagement in differentially experienced air traffic control (ATC) students. EEG and pupil diameter recordings were collected from 47 ATC students (27 more experienced and 20 less experienced) during a high-fidelity, variable workload approach-control scenario. Scenario workload was manipulated by increasing the number of aircraft released and the presence of a divided attention task. Results showed that scenario performance significantly degraded with increased aircraft and the presence of the divided attention task. No scenario performance differences were found between experience groups. The EEG engagement metric significantly differed between experience groups, with less experienced controllers exhibiting higher engagement than more experienced controllers. The EEG workload metric and pupil diameter were sensitive to workload manipulations but did not differentiate experience groups. Commercially available EEG cognitive state metrics may be a viable tool for enhancing ATC training.

Questionnaire instruments have been used extensively by researchers in the literature review for evaluation of various aspects of public transportation. Important implications have been derived from those instruments to improve various aspects of the transport. However, it is important that instruments, which are designed to measure various stimuli, meet criteria of reliability to reflect a real impact of the stressors. Particularly, given the diverse range of commuter characteristics considered in this study, it is necessary to ensure that instruments are reliable and accurate. This can be achieved by finding the relationship between the item’s properties and the underlying unobserved trait, being measured. The item response theory (IRT) refers to measurement of an instrument’s reliability by examining the relationship between the unobserved trait and various observed items. In this study, to determine if our instrument suffers from any potentially associated problems, the IRT analysis was conducted. The analysis was employed based on the graded response model (GRM) due to the ordinal nature of the data. Various aspects of the instruments, such as discriminability and informativity of the items were tested. For instance, it was found while the classical test theory (CTT) confirm the reliability of the instrument, IRT highlight some concerns regarding the instrument. Also, the person fit assessment measure, for instance, highlights some concern regarding respondents answering some of the questions due to lack of interest, choosing answers randomly. Not many studies have examined instruments’ reliability in determining the psychological impacts of public transportation on commuters in the way that was performed here.

Various psychological feelings that commuters might experience due to the shortcomings of a public transport are a major concern for transport policy makers. Those shortcomings would be translated into various negative psychological feelings, which would consequently tarnish the perceived quality of the public transport system in terms of its characteristics, e.g., the perceived quality of the passengers' information system (PIS). A delay has often been defined as the difference between the real arrival of a transport and the scheduled arrival of based on the PIS. The main question this study seeks to answer is how passengers view the PIS while undergoing various psychological negative impacts due to delay? This is especially important when the PIS is not precise. Previous studies on the importance of real-time information mainly focus on the impact of PIS on the satisfaction of commuters, or the reliability of the public transport. However, they rarely consider the negative psychological impacts that delays might have on commuters, and how those negative feelings might be aggravated by providing inaccurate information for the commuters. The proposed study is based on completed questionnaires by 396 passengers waiting for a rail transport in Malaysia; the rail transport was experiencing frequent long delays due to various mechanical malfunctions. In addition, the PIS provided for the passengers were mainly imprecise, and was updated regularly. The relationship between various considered variables, and a related latent factor, were formed by means of factor analysis. The results of internal consistency and validity highlight acceptable factors to be considered for a structural equation modeling (SEM) model. Three latent factors were found to impact the latent factor of PIS. For instance, it was found that the relationship between motion sickness factor and the response of PIS is not by a direct relationship between those two factors, but through the mediation of a latent physiological factor. On the other hand, the impact of the psychological feelings of the commuter by PIS is higher than its physiological effects. The results of this study have an important managerial implication for policy makers that even if the delay is inevitable, an accurate PIS could be provided to reduce the associated negative feelings of delay. Extensive discussion has been had about identification of a best fit model and process of model's parameters' estimation.

Students who self-reported having had a concussion (C, n = 25) or not having had a concussion (NC, n = 63) took the Sports Concussion Knowledge questionnaire (9 true statements/17 false statements about concussions), responding true or false to each statement and indicating their confidence level (0–100%) in their answer. They also took the Executive Function Index. Groups did not differ on TT statements (true statements responded to as true) and TF statements (true statements responded to as false), F’s

Due to the ubiquity of cell phones, a myriad of studies have been conducted relating to human interaction with the devices. Though prior studies have indicated individuals have behavioral and physiological anxiety when separated from their phone, previous studies have not examined participants rating their relationship to their phone with intimate words reserved for close relationships. We had 175 students from a Midwestern university in the United States complete the Self-Perception of Text-Message Dependence Scale (SPTMDS) and the Emotional Attachment Scale. All four subscales of the SPTMDS (emotional reaction, excessive use, relationship maintenance, and psychological/behavioral symptoms) were significantly and positively correlated with emotional attachment. In addition, emotional attachment, age, and gender explained 22.8% of variance of the texting reliance scores. How an individual feels toward their phone appears to relate to how reliant an individual is on texting in their day-to-day lives. Implications for future studies are discussed.

We applied Brinley ( 1965 ) plot analysis to the eating disorders field. Across 23 studies and 165 experimental conditions [experienced by a total of 773 eating disorder (ED) participants, including anorexia nervosa (AN), binge eating (BE), bulimia nervosa (BN), and eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS) and 995 controls], the best-fit regression equation was Y (ED) = 1.08 X (CONTROL) - 31. This equation accounted for 98.2% of the variance. Thus, the ED subjects were only 1.08 times slower than the control subjects, suggesting little processing speed slowing in ED. We also examined simple reaction time [SRT; Y (ED) = .91 X (CONTROL) + 63; variance accounted for = 93.6%] and choice reaction time (CRT; Y (ED) = 1.12X (CONTROL) - 43, variance accounted for = 99.7%). These slopes are significantly different. ED subjects are more impacted when the task involves a decision component (CRT) than when it does not (SRT).

This study examined performance on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neurological Status (RBANS), a brief neuropsychological test battery of cognitive function, in participants with two levels of sub-clinical autistic symptoms as quantified by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (ASQ). Participants were non-clinical college participants classified as displaying either Low (0–15 ASQ score, n = 183) ASQ traits or High (16 or higher ASQ score, n = 91) ASQ traits. Participants were given the ASQ and the RBANS. High ASQ subjects scored lower on Picture Naming (p < .02), Semantic Fluency (p < .05), Story Recall (p < .04) and the Language Index (p < .01).

The use of weaponized drones or “unmanned aerial vehicles” (UAVs) has become increasingly widespread and controversial over the past few decades. The current paper reviews the state of the research regarding the potential psychosocial impact of weaponized drones on operators and target populations and communities. It is concluded that research regarding the impact of drones in the psychological literature remains limited and most discussion of drones’ impact has taken place in the public policy and legal/ethical spheres, often by entities invested in condoning or condemning the use of drones. The limited available data addresses potential new challenges to the well-being of drone operators, factors influencing decision making regarding the use of drones, and the impact on target communities. The current paper neither condones nor condemns the use of drones, but is advanced as a state of the research and a call for additional objective and empirical analysis on this relatively new form of warfare.

The hypothesis that obituary notices will be less direct/less emotional in the language used for females than for males was tested. A total of 703 consecutive obituaries were examined in a local newspaper and instances of whether the person died or passed away was noted for males and females. A 2 (gender) × 2 (died, passed away) Chi-Square analysis supported the hypothesis: X2 (1) = 8.87, p

College students (n = 120) answered 18 yes–no questions that varied the child’s gender (male, female), grade (grade school, high school, college), and sport (football, soccer, hockey). The format o...

College students recovering from mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) often experience a constellation of symptoms including cognitive and emotional difficulties. While these symptoms may interfere with academic performance, few students seek supportive services. Assessment of MTBI symptoms may be important to help identify students with symptoms that may interfere with academic performance and assist them in obtaining appropriate treatment and support services. The purpose of this study was to evaluate cognitive performance of college students with a history of MTBI on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) as well as symptoms of anxiety and depression. A total of seventy college students participated in this study. Participants were divided into two groups based on self-reported history of MTBI. Participants with a history of MTBI (

The current study examined whether individual differences in memory, attention, and visuospatial ability are significant predictors of multitasking ability (multitasking performance baseline level) and multitasking adaptability (the capacity to adapt to dynamic changes in task demands). Participants were administered a neuropsychological battery to measure individual differences in cognitive abilities. Then, participants performed the Multi-Attribute Task Battery-II (MATB) comprising of three workload conditions. Results indicated that participants scoring higher on measures of attention performed better on the MATB during the baseline condition (ability). However, higher scores on measures of delayed memory predicted better performance during more demanding MATB conditions (adaptability), while visuospatial ability predicted worsened performance during more demanding MATB conditions. Additionally, higher global neuropsychological functioning predicted better MATB performance during all conditions.

We gave 127 undergraduates questionnaires about their iPod and texting dependence and 2 hypothetical delay discounting scenarios related to free downloaded songs and free texting for life. Using regression analyses we found that when iPod dependence was the dependent variable, Text2-excessive use, Text4-psychological and behavioral symptoms, iPod2-excessive use, and iPod3-relationship disruption were significant predictors of discounting. When texting dependence was the dependent variable, Text4-psychological and behavioral symptoms and iPod3-relationship disruption were significant predictors of discounting. These are the first data to show that delay discounting relates to certain aspects of social media, namely iPod and texting dependence. These data also show that across these 2 dependencies, both psychological and behavioral symptoms and relationship disruptions are affected.

Little research has examined how age impacts texting dependence, despite the increased usage of texting and other social media applications in older adults. In the present study, three age groups (18-29 years of age, n = 135; 30-49 years of age, n = 58; 50-69 years of age, n = 19) were given the Self-Perceptions of Text Messaging Dependency Scale (SPTMDS). This self-report measure examines Emotion Reaction, Excessive Use, Disruption of Relationships with text Messages and Psychological/Behavioral Symptoms Concerning Heavy Usage). Results revealed that (a) texting dependence decreased across the three age groups and (b) that this decrease occurred for all four sub-scales of the SPTMDS (all p's < .01). These results have implications for how one aspect of social media (namely texting) is used and ultimately accepted by older adults.

This literature review will summarize, compare, and evaluate the reviewed studies addressing and investigating the relationship between concussion and the sports of hockey. We will accomplish this by identifying prevalence rates, recognizing common mechanisms of causation, describing and discussing prevention and care, and summarizing the results to provide implications for further studies. We conclude by indicating the important mental health issues as well as potentially severe and long-lasting impact concussions can and do have on those that receive them as well as on the friends and families of those who sustain a concussion.

Due to the increase of awareness and diagnosis of pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), research has also increased regarding those with such disorders and their course in society. Eyewitness testimony is an area of research that has escalated in the recent years regarding the average person as well as PDD individuals. This paper addresses the issue of eyewitnesses with PDD.

The present study examined whether personality characteristics and general intelligence predict multitasking performance. The Multi-Attribute Task Battery-II was used to assess multitasking performance. Personality factors included the Big Five, openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The results indicated scores on general intelligence predict performance on the tracking task of the Multi-Attribute Task Battery-II, where higher scores of general intelligence predicted improved tracking performance. Additionally, conscientiousness and neuroticism were found to predict worsened performance on the resource management task of the Multi-Attribute Task Battery-II. Furthermore, agreeableness was found to predict perceived workload on the mental demand subscale of the Workload Rating Scale.

Cognitive dissonance (CD) is the discomfort that occurs when two opposing beliefs are held simultaneously. When this conflict arises, one of the opposing beliefs must be altered or dropped in order to reduce the discomfort. The current study examined the relationship between cognitive dissonance and intelligence (using vocabulary subtest scores of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised IV; WAIS-R IV) and grade point average (GPA) in 103 college undergraduates. The ratings occurred before and after the exam. In order to induce the cognitive dissonance participants were given low fictitious scores and shown a comparatively greater average. Cognitive dissonance was measured by taking the difference of the participants' fairness ratings of the vocabulary subtest. No relationship existed between WAIS-R IV performance and CD scores (r = .01, ns). However, GPA and CD scores were negatively associated (r = -.29, p Keywords: dissonance, intelligence, GPA, college studentsPeople tend to develop a feeling of discomfort when they possess two beliefs that are in opposition (Elliot & Devine, 1994). This internal conflict is referred to as cognitive dissonance (CD; Festinger, 1957). CD is a common occurrence for people and it arises in a multitude of situations. For example, a man and a woman are dating and they have decided they would like to get married and have kids. During their discussion of future plans the man says he was raised religiously and believes the kids should be brought up with the beliefs he was taught. The woman says she was raised without religion and she turned out fine so she thinks the kids should be brought up without any religious beliefs. The man and the woman are both experiencing a cognitive dissonance in which the desires and conflicts are:The Man:1. Wants to marry and have children with the woman he is dating.2. Wants to raise his children with the religious beliefs he was taught.The Woman:1. Wants to marry and have children with the man she is dating.2. Wants to raise her children without any religious beliefs.Cognitive dissonance must be resolved in some way and in this situation the man and woman must either end the relationship or greatly decrease their personal importance of how their children will be raised. CD is more commonly observed among smaller situations that conflict with the idea that people believe they are intelligent (Kneer, Glock, & Rieger, 2012). For example, consider the addiction of smoking. It is common knowledge that smoking results in negative and undesirable health consequences, yet the behavior still conti nues. Each time a per son chooses to smoke they encounter the cognitive dissonance of inflicting self-harm, or not receiving the satisfaction or relieve the craving (Kneer, Glock, & Rieger, 2012).A student who studies for an exam but receives a poor grade may encounter a cognitive dissonance between believing he or she underestim a ted t h e exa m an d actually needed to study more (their own fault), or believing the exam was purposely made to be extremely difficult so students would not h ave good r esult s (som eon e else's/th e professor 's fault). The first choice admits fault and leaves the student having made an unintelligent decision. The second choice places blame on the professor and leaves the student with no fault and therefore having not made an unintelligent decision.Current research has shown that CD affects a variety of experiences including personal responsibility (Cheng & Hsu, 2012), justification (Bendersky & Curhan, 2009), eating disorder prevention (McMillan, Stice, & Rohde, 2011), normative standards (Voisin & Fointiat, 2013), criminal evidence (Ask, Reinhard, Marksteiner, & Granhag, 2011), motive (Gawronski, 2012), perceptions of natural environments (Balcetis & Dunning, 2007), normative standards (Stone & Cooper, 2001), white lies (Argo & Shiv, 2012), and ethics (Barkan, Ayal, Gino, & Ariely, 2012). …

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been linked to bodily disorders (anorexia nervosa, obesity), and individuals with ASD are known to experience unique bodily states (e.g., exaggerated interoceptive sensitivity). Though there is evidence to suggest body variables may significantly impact quality of life in those with ASD, research has yet to examine the potential relationship between ASD and body image variables, that is, the evaluation of one's body. The present study examined 80 healthy college students (40 male, 40 female) who completed an online set of questionnaires regarding body image and satisfaction, body competency, depression, anxiety, and autistic traits (Autism Spectrum Quotient, or AQ) (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner, Martin,Clubley, 2001 ). Of primary interest was whether AQ scores, gender, and the interaction between AQ scores and gender could successfully predict participants' scores on body image, satisfaction, and competency scales. Autistic traits were only a significant predictor of scores on one measure of momentary body image and satisfaction (Body Image States Scale: Cash et al., 2002 ). However, our results did suggest the possibility of an interaction between gender and AQ scores in predicting reports of body image, satisfaction, and competency.

A total of 32 studies comprising 238 simple reaction time and choice reaction time conditions were examined in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (n = 964) and controls (n = 1032). A Brinley plot/multiple regression analysis was performed on mean reaction times, regressing autism spectrum disorder performance onto the control performance as a way to examine any generalized simple reaction time/choice reaction time slowing exhibited by the autism spectrum disorder group. The resulting regression equation was Y (autism spectrum disorder) = 0.99 × (control) + 87.93, which accounted for 92.3% of the variance. These results suggest that there are little if any simple reaction time/choice reaction time slowing in this sample of individual with autism spectrum disorder, in comparison with controls. While many cognitive and information processing domains are compromised in autism spectrum disorder, it appears that simple reaction time/choice reaction time remain relatively unaffected in autism spectrum disorder.

Younger and older adults were asked their opinions about driving while using a cellphone and the inevitable distractions that occur in such situations. Participants were also asked for their thoughts on hypothetical laws being introduced that would ban cell phone use during driving. Older adults were much more likely to feel that any possible distractions are potentially hazardous compared to young adults, and more likely to report that cell phone benefits do not outweigh their disadvantages. In general, older adults seem more cautious about the impact that cell phone technology has on driving, are more apt to realize the consequences of such behavior as compared to younger adults, and also tend to support stricter driving and distraction laws.

We analyzed data from 74 male collegiate hockey players. Each athlete’s season began with a baseline administration of the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) neuropsychology test battery. Fourteen athletes sustained a sport-related head injury and were readministered the test to assess the impact of the injury. A significant decrease in performance (compared to baseline) on immediate and delayed word recall and designs followed the first concussion. Following a second sport-related concussion, the 4 affected athletes showed significant decrease in visual motor speed. Performance improved on 2 response speed measures ( Ps < .01). More errors occurred during a visual processing/discrimination task and immediate recall of designs declined ( Ps < .05). We discuss the results in light of recent work related to the impact of early-life concussions and head injury on late-life consequences, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and more immediate issues such as return-to-play decisions for athletes.

When we deal with information, we do so in steps. One way to think of this is to picture the process of acquiring, retaining, and using information as an activity called information processing. Information comes from the outside world into the sensory registers of the human brain. This sensory input is processed by various parts of our brain, and some of the information is integrated and enters into consciousness. We usually refer to this information and our awareness of it as perception. We are not consciously aware of most of the things we perceive, becoming aware of them only if we consciously direct our attention to them. When we do focus our attention on this information, it is temporarily stored in our working memory. Keywords: decision making; information processing and cognitions; memory

Six experiments provided tests of the effectiveness of subjective duration ratings as an index of the processing resources required in cognitive tasks. Duration ratings reflected significant differences between the resources needed to process high- and low-frequency words (Experiments 1, 5, and 6), and ambiguous and unambiguous words (Experiments 1 and 2), and produced an interaction between memory load and word frequency (Experiment 6). However, participants tended to assign higher ratings to larger stimuli (Experiments 1, 4, and 5); for example, words in upper case received higher ratings than words in lower case. Although physical size of stimuli is an important factor to consider, subjective duration estimates provide a useful measure for understanding cognitive processing. This conclusion is supported by the current replication of several findings in the cognitive literature, including the word-frequency and lexical-ambiguity effects.

This study compared neuropsychological test performance of individuals (n = 18) with an occupational history of pesticide exposure to individuals (n = 35) with no such exposure history. Results showed that a history of pesticide-related occupation exposure led to deficits in only Digit Symbol performance. Additionally, the correlation between Mini-Mental Status Exam (MMSE) performance and age was negative and significant in individuals with pesticide-related occupation exposure (r = −.45, p .61), suggesting that cognitive ability (as measured by the MMSE) declines faster in the occupational-exposed group as compared to their counterparts without such exposure. This decline was evident despite the fact that groups did not differ significantly in age.

The study investigated a potential relationship between level of executive functioning and rates of delay discounting (i.e., the subjective decrease in the value of an outcome if its delivery is delayed). University students completed an executive-functioning questionnaire and then a delay-discounting task involving four different outcomes (money, cigarettes, dating partner, body image). Results showed that the overall measure of executive functioning was a significant predictor of rates of discounting of three of the four outcomes, and approached significance for the fourth outcome. Further, different subscales of executive functioning were significantly correlated with discounting of different outcomes. These results suggest that executive functioning plays a role in discounting of delayed outcomes and that procedures designed to affect either executive function or delay discounting might result in concomitant changes in the other measure.

The present study investigated four (anger, depression, anxiety, impulsivity) potential risk factors for the development of eating disorders in 79 male college students. All participants completed the Setting Conditions for Anorexia Nervosa Scale (SCANS), to determine if they were at-risk for the development of an eating disorder. The hypothesis, that males who are at-risk for the development of an eating disorder would show a higher occurrence of the potential risk factors, was partially supported. Those who scored high on the Dissatisfaction subscale of the SCANS had high positive correlations with all four risk factors. The SCANS Perfectionism subscale showed no such relationships with any of the risk factoes.

Sixty-one women (40 at-risk for an eating disorder based on the Screening Instrument for Identifying Individuals at Risk for Developing Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa, SCANS) completed a self-report packet of questionnaires concerning executive function, impulsive behavior, mood, anxiety, delayed discounting and measures of body image dissatisfaction. Results revealed that the at-risk group were more depressed, had lower motivation, displayed more empathy, were more anxious (state and trait) and had a greater impulse behavior of urgency.