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Background: After a severe brain injury and a coma, patients may develop disorders of consciousness (DoC), frequently accompanied by severe dysphagia. The evaluation and therapy of swallowing are therefore essential aspects of their management. Objectives: This study aims to evaluate the SWallowing Assessment in Disorders of Consciousness (SWADOC) tool in the assessment of swallowing in post-comatose patients. Here, we validate its quantitative items, describe preliminary results and identify limitations. Methods: Fourteen post-comatose patients were repeatedly evaluated with the Simplified Evaluation of CONsciousness Disorders (SECONDs) and with the SWADOC. Results: The internal consistency of the oral and pharyngeal subscales of the SWADOC was good. The test-retest reliability showed that all items, all subscores and the total score were stable except for two items (endo-buccal secretions and bronchial congestion). A comparison to the Facial Oral Tract Therapy Swallowing Assessment of Saliva (F.O.T.T-SAS) confirmed that scoring with the SWADOC offers a greater potential for quantitative observations in assessing swallowing abilities among patients with DoC. The SECONDs scores and SWADOC total scores showed a significant positive correlation (τ = 0.78, p < 0.001). Conclusions: This study provides preliminary but encouraging results on the psychometric properties of the SWADOC tool. It shows that this tool is relevant and feasible as a bedside assessment of dysphagia in patients with DoC.

Background: After a coma, patients with severe brain injury may present disorders of consciousness (DOC). A substantial proportion of these patients also suffer from severe dysphagia. Assessment of and therapy for swallowing disabilities of patients with DOC are essential because dysphagia has major functional consequences and comorbidities. Dysphagia evaluation in patients with DOC is impeded by the lack of adapted tools. The first aim of this study was to create a new tool, the SWallowing Assessment in Disorders Of Consciousness (SWADOC), and propose a validation protocol. The SWADOC was developed to help therapists assess factors related to swallowing in patients with DOC. The second aim was to investigate the relationship between patients' level of consciousness and SWADOC items and scores. Method/Design: In this multicenter prospective cohort, 104 patients with DOC will be tested three times over five consecutive days with the SWADOC. Statistical analyses will focus on the reliability and validity of the SWADOC, especially the intrarater and interrater reliability, internal consistency, measures of dispersion, and concurrent validity with the Facial Oral Tract Therapy Swallowing Assessment of Saliva (FOTT-SAS). The level of consciousness will be assessed with the Simplified Evaluation of CONsciousness Disorders (SECONDs) and the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R). Discussion: The assessment of swallowing abilities among patients with DOC is the first necessary step toward the development of a customized dysphagia care plan. A validated scoring tool will be essential for clinicians to better assess dysphagia in patients with DOC and document the evolution of their disorders. Trial Registration: NCT04706689., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Mélotte, Belorgeot, Herr, Simon, Kaux, Laureys, Sanz, Lagier, Morsomme, Pellas and Gosseries.)

Objective: To assess the effects of injecting botulinum toxin into the lower limb muscles of people with hemiparesis post stroke in terms of their sway areas., Design: A multicenter randomized double-blind trial on the effects of active botulinum toxin treatment vs placebo., Setting: Clinical examinations and postural sway assessments were performed before botulinum toxin injection and again 4-6 weeks after the injection., Participants: People with hemiparesis with chronic post stroke lower limb spasticity (N=40)., Interventions: Intramuscular injection of a placebo (physiological serum) was performed on the control group, and botulinum toxin injections were performed on the treatment group. Participants and physical and rehabilitation medicine specialists were given no information as to which of the 2 treatments was applied., Main Outcome Measures: The sway area of the center of pressure was recorded for 30 seconds in 3 conditions: eyes open, eyes open in a dual task (a postural control task combined with an arithmetic task), and eyes closed. Spasticity was measured using the Modified Ashworth Scale., Results: Forty people post stroke were enrolled and randomized into 2 groups, one of which was treated with botulinum toxin (n=19) and the other with placebo (n=21). Spasticity decreased significantly in the treatment group (-0.7, P=.049 in the soleus muscles; -0.8, P=.035 in the gastrocnemii muscles). The sway area did not differ significantly between the 2 groups before treatment. The most conspicuous effect was observed in the case of the dual task, where a significant decrease (P=.005) in the sway area occurred in the treatment group (-3.11±6.92) in comparison with the placebo group (+0.27±3.57)., Conclusion: Treating spasticity by injecting botulinum toxin into people's lower limb muscles post stroke seems to improve their postural sway. The dual task used here to assess sway seems to be a useful, sensitive test for this purpose., (Copyright © 2019 American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: People who survive severe brain damage may eventually develop a prolonged consciousness disorder. Others can regain full consciousness but remain unable to speak or move because of the severity of the lesions, as for those with locked-in syndrome (LIS). Brain-computer interface techniques can be useful to disentangle these states by detecting neurophysiological correlates of conscious processing of information to enable communication with these individuals after the diagnosis., Objective: The goal of our study was to evaluate with a user-centered design approach the usability of a mental imagery task to detect signs of voluntary information processing and enabling communication in a group of severely disabled individuals., Methods: Five individuals with LIS participated in the study. Participants were instructed to imagine hand, arm or feet movements during electroencephalography (EEG) to detect patterns of event-related synchronization/desynchronization associated with each task. After the user-centered design, usability was evaluated (i.e., efficiency, effectiveness and satisfaction)., Results: Two participants achieved significant levels of accuracy in 2 different tasks. The associated workload and levels of satisfaction perceived by the users were moderate and were mainly related to the time demand of the task., Conclusion: Results showed lack of effectiveness of the task to detect voluntary brain activity and thus detect consciousness or communicate with non-responsive individuals. The application must be modified to be sufficiently satisfying for the intended end-users and suggestions are made in this regard., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Home-based self-rehabilitation programmes combined with botulinum toxin injections (BTIs) appear to be a relevant approach to increase the recommended intensive rehabilitation of patients with spasticity following a stroke. The literature highlights a lack of evidence of beneficial effects of this adjuvant therapy to reduce limitations of patients with stroke. The aim of this study is to assess the effects of a 6-month self-rehabilitation programme in adjunction to BTI, in comparison with BTI alone, to reduce limitations of patients with spasticity following a stroke., Methods and Analysis: 220 chronic patients will participate to this multicentre, prospective, randomised, controlled, assessor blinded study. All patients will benefit from two successive BTI (3 months apart), and patients randomised in the self-rehabilitation group will perform in adjunction 6 months of self-rehabilitation at home. All patients continue their conventional physiotherapy. The main outcome is the primary treatment goal (PTG), which will be determined jointly by the patient and the medical doctor using Goal Attainment Scaling. Impairments and functions, quality of life, mood and fatigue will be assessed. Botulinum toxin will be injected into the relevant muscles according to the PTG. Patients in the self-rehab group will be taught the self-rehabilitation programme involving respectively 10 min of stretching, 10 min of strengthening and 10 min of task-oriented exercises, corresponding to their PTG. Compliance to the self-rehabilitation programme will be monitored., Ethics and Dissemination: Patients will sign written informed consent. Ethical approval was obtained from ethics committee. The results will be disseminated in a peer-reviewed journal and presented at international congresses. The results will also be disseminated to patients., Trial Registration Number: NCT02944929., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2018. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Persons diagnosed with disorders of consciousness (DOC) typically suffer from motor disablities, and thus assessing their spared cognitive abilities can be difficult. Recent research from several groups has shown that non-invasive brain-computer interface (BCI) technology can provide assessments of these patients' cognitive function that can supplement information provided through conventional behavioral assessment methods. In rare cases, BCIs may provide a binary communication mechanism. Here, we present results from a vibrotactile BCI assessment aiming at detecting command-following and communication in 12 unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) patients. Two different paradigms were administered at least once for every patient: (i) VT2 with two vibro-tactile stimulators fixed on the patient's left and right wrists and (ii) VT3 with three vibro-tactile stimulators fixed on both wrists and on the back. The patients were instructed to mentally count either the stimuli on the left or right wrist, which may elicit a robust P300 for the target wrist only. The EEG data from -100 to +600 ms around each stimulus were extracted and sub-divided into 8 data segments. This data was classified with linear discriminant analysis (using a 10 × 10 cross validation) and used to calibrate a BCI to assess command following and YES/NO communication abilities. The grand average VT2 accuracy across all patients was 38.3%, and the VT3 accuracy was 26.3%. Two patients achieved VT3 accuracy ≥80% and went through communication testing. One of these patients answered 4 out of 5 questions correctly in session 1, whereas the other patient answered 6/10 and 7/10 questions correctly in sessions 2 and 4. In 6 other patients, the VT2 or VT3 accuracy was above the significance threshold of 23% for at least one run, while in 4 patients, the accuracy was always below this threshold. The study highlights the importance of repeating EEG assessments to increase the chance of detecting command-following in patients with severe brain injury. Furthermore, the study shows that BCI technology can test command following in chronic UWS patients and can allow some of these patients to answer YES/NO questions.

A real transition between intensive care and traditional rehabilitation, the post-intensive care rehabilitation service for patients with brain injuries aims to provide patients with early and intensive rehabilitation. Multi-disciplinary teams support the patients and their families on their journey towards new life projects., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Family needs of patients with acquired brain injuries have been studied for about three decades. In this study, we assessed the needs, the quality of life and the psychological state of relatives of patients with locked-in syndrome (LIS)., Design: A survey was carried out using the family needs' questionnaire (FNQ)., Subjects and Methods: Thirty relatives of patients with LIS fully completed the FNQ., Results: The most important need reported by families corresponded to the need for medical information. The highest percentage of satisfaction (66%) was also observed for this need. Among the needs for information, specifically, the most important for LIS' relatives was to know that the patient's needs and wishes were respected by the professional staff, which were fulfilled in 93% of the sample. The need for emotional support was the least important and had the lowest percentage of satisfaction (55%). The number of met/unmet needs correlated with the quality of life of the families. Most of the relatives reported anxiety feelings and depressive thoughts., Conclusions: Receiving accurate medical information is the most important need for family of patients with LIS and their quality of life is correlated with the fulfilment of their needs.

Event-related potentials (ERP) have been proposed to improve the differential diagnosis of non-responsive patients. We investigated the potential of the P300 as a reliable marker of conscious processing in patients with locked-in syndrome (LIS). Eleven chronic LIS patients and 10 healthy subjects (HS) listened to a complex-tone auditory oddball paradigm, first in a passive condition (listen to the sounds) and then in an active condition (counting the deviant tones). Seven out of nine HS displayed a P300 waveform in the passive condition and all in the active condition. HS showed statistically significant changes in peak and area amplitude between conditions. Three out of seven LIS patients showed the P3 waveform in the passive condition and five of seven in the active condition. No changes in peak amplitude and only a significant difference at one electrode in area amplitude were observed in this group between conditions. We conclude that, in spite of keeping full consciousness and intact or nearly intact cortical functions, compared to HS, LIS patients present less reliable results when testing with ERP, specifically in the passive condition. We thus strongly recommend applying ERP paradigms in an active condition when evaluating consciousness in non-responsive patients.

Objective: Locked-in syndrome (LIS) usually follows a brainstem stroke and is characterized by paralysis of all voluntary muscles (except eyes' movements or blinking) and lack of speech with preserved consciousness. Several tools have been developed to promote communication with these patients. The aim of the study was to evaluate the current status regarding communication in a cohort of LIS patients., Design: A survey was conducted in collaboration with the French Association of Locked-in syndrome (ALIS)., Subjects and Methods: Two hundred and four patients, members of ALIS, were invited to fill in a questionnaire on communication issues and clinical evolution (recovery of verbal language and movements, presence of visual and/or auditory deficits)., Results: Eighty-eight responses were processed. All respondents (35% female, mean age = 52 ± 12 years, mean time in LIS = 10 ± 6 years) reported using a yes/no communication code using mainly eyes' movements and 62% used assisting technology; 49% could communicate through verbal language and 73% have recovered some functional movements within the years., Conclusion: The results highlight the possibility to recover non-eye dependent communication, speech production and some functional movement in the majority of chronic LIS patients.

Objectives Locked-in syndrome (LIS) consists of anarthria and quadriplegia while consciousness is preserved. Classically, vertical eye movements or blinking allow coded communication. Given appropriate medical care, patients can survive for decades. We studied the self-reported quality of life in chronic LIS patients. Design 168 LIS members of the French Association for LIS were invited to answer a questionnaire on medical history, current status and end-of-life issues. They self-assessed their global subjective well-being with the Anamnestic Comparative Self-Assessment (ACSA) scale, whose +5 and -5 anchors were their memories of the best period in their life before LIS and their worst period ever, respectively. Results 91 patients (54%) responded and 26 were excluded because of missing data on quality of life. 47 patients professed happiness (median ACSA +3) and 18 unhappiness (median ACSA -4). Variables associated with unhappiness included anxiety and dissatisfaction with mobility in the community, recreational activities and recovery of speech production. A longer time in LIS was correlated with happiness. 58% declared they did not wish to be resuscitated in case of cardiac arrest and 7% expressed a wish for euthanasia. Conclusions Our data stress the need for extra palliative efforts directed at mobility and recreational activities in LIS and the importance of anxiolytic therapy. Recently affected LIS patients who wish to die should be assured that there is a high chance they will regain a happy meaningful life. End-of-life decisions, including euthanasia, should not be avoided, but a moratorium to allow a steady state to be reached should be proposed.

The locked-in syndrome is a rare neurologic disorder defined by (1) the presence of sustained eye opening; (2) preserved awareness; (3) aphonia or hypophonia; (4) quadriplegia or quadriparesis; and (5) a primary mode of communication that uses vertical or lateral eye movement or blinking. Five cases are reported here, and previous literature is reviewed. According to the literature, the most common etiology of locked-in syndrome in children is ventral pontine stroke, most frequently caused by a vertebrobasilar artery thrombosis or occlusion. In terms of prognosis, 35% of pediatric locked-in syndrome patients experienced some motor recovery, 26% had good recovery, 23% died, and 16% remained quadriplegic and anarthric. These findings raise important ethical considerations in terms of quality of life and end-of-life decisions in such challenging cases.

The locked-in syndrome (LIS) describes patients who are awake and conscious but severely deefferented leaving the patient in a state of almost complete immobility and loss of verbal communication. The etiology ranges from acute (e.g., brainstem stroke, which is the most frequent cause of LIS) to chronic causes (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; ALS). In this article we review and present new data on the psychosocial adjustment to LIS. We refer to quality of life (QoL) and the degree of depressive symptoms as a measure of psychosocial adjustment. Various studies suggest that despite their extreme motor impairment, a significant number of LIS patients maintain a good QoL that seems unrelated to their state of physical functioning. Likewise, depression is not predicted by the physical state of the patients. A successful psychological adjustment to the disease was shown to be related to problem-oriented coping strategies, like seeking for information, and emotional coping strategies like denial--the latter may, nevertheless, vary with disease stage. Perceived social support seems to be the strongest predictor of psychosocial adjustment. QoL in LIS patients is often in the same range as in age-matched healthy individuals. Interestingly, there is evidence that significant others, like primary caregivers or spouses, rate LIS patients' QoL significantly lower than the patients themselves. With regard to depressed mood, ALS patients without symptoms focus significantly more often on internal factors that can be retained in the course of the disease contrary to patients with depressive symptoms who preferably name external factors as very important, such as health, which will degrade in the course of the disease. Typically, ALS patients with a higher degree of depressive symptoms experience significantly less "very pleasant" situations. The herein presented data strongly question the assumption among doctors, health-care workers, lay persons, and politicians that severe motor disability necessarily is intolerable and leads to end-of-life decisions or euthanasia. Existing evidence supports that biased clinicians provide less-aggressive medical treatment in LIS patients. Thus, psychological treatment for depression, effective strategies for coping with the disease, and support concerning the maintenance of the social network are needed to cope with the disease. Novel communication devices and assistive technology now offers an increasing number of LIS patients to resume a meaningful life and an active role in society.

Muscle spasticity causes pain, disability, and difficulties in the rehabilitation of patients with cerebrovascular lesions, head, brain or spine trauma, coma, or neurologic diseases such as multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or cerebral palsy. Regional blocks have a threefold use in patients with painful spasticity: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic. Blocks are feasible on an outpatient or day-hospital basis. Blocks are applied most often to 4 peripheral sites: the pectoral nerve loop, median, obturator, and tibial nerves. The main indication is debilitating or painful spasticity. Peripheral blocks with local anesthetics are used as tests, to mimic the effects of motor blocks and determine their potential adverse effects, transiently and reversibly. Peripheral neurolytic blocks are easy to perform, effective, and inexpensive.

The Locked-In Syndrome (LIS) is classically caused by an anterior pontine vascular lesion and characterized by quadriplegia and anarthria with preserved consciousness and intellectual functioning. We here review the definition, etiologies, diagnosis and prognosis of LIS patients and briefly discuss the few studies on their quality of life and the challenging end-of-life decisions that can be encountered. Some clinicians may consider that LIS is worse than being in a vegetative or in a minimally conscious state. However, preliminary data from chronic LIS survivors show a surprisingly preserved self-scored quality of life and requests of treatment withdrawal or euthanasia, though not absent, are infrequent.

Introduction: The Locked-In syndrome (LIS) is defined by: (i) the presence of sustained eye opening (bilateral ptosis should be ruled out as a complicating factor); (ii) preserved awareness; (iii) aphonia or hypophonia; (iv) quadriplegia or quadriparesis; and (v) a primary mode of communication that uses vertical or lateral eye movement or blinking. Acute ventral pontine lesions are its most common cause. Following such brainstem lesions patients may remain comatose for some time and then gradually awaken, remaining paralyzed and voiceless, superficially resembling the vegetative state., Background: It has been shown that more than half of the time physicians fail to recognize early signs of awareness in LIS. Given appropriate medical care, life expectancy may be several decades but the chances of good motor recovery remain small. Eye-controlled computer technology now allows LIS patients to communicate and control their environment. Recent studies show that most LIS patients self-report meaningful quality of life and the demand for euthanasia is infrequent., Conclusion: Patients suffering from LIS should not be denied the right to die--and to die with dignity--but also they should not be denied the right to live--and to live with dignity and the best possible pain and symptom management and revalidation.

Objective: The lockedin syndrome (LIS) originates from a ventro-pontine lesion resulting in a complete quadraplegia and anarthria. Classically, communication remains possible by means of spared vertical eye movements and/or blinking. To allow assessing cognitive functions in LIS patients, we propose here a neuropsychological testing based on eye-coded communication., Methods: Ten chronic LIS survivors were assessed 1 to 6 years after their brain insult. One patient was evaluated subacutely (at 2 months) and retested at 6 and 16 months. Neuropsychological testing encompassed short- and long-term memory, attention, executive functioning, phonological and semantic processing and verbal intelligence., Results: None of the patients showed alterations in verbal intelligence. Impairments in one or several tests were found in five patients. In three of these patients, neuropsychological deficits could be related to additional cortical or thalamic structural brain lesions. In the other 2 patients, weakness or signs of fatigue only were observed in one or two cognitive tasks. Repeated measures in a subacute patient with pure brainstem lesion indicate the recovery of good levels of cognition 6 months after injury., Conclusion: Results indicate that LIS patients can recover intact cognitive levels in cases of pure brainstem lesions, and that additional brain injuries are most likely responsible for associated cognitive deficits in the LIS. Furthermore, a systematic neuropsychological assessment in LIS patients would allow detecting their cognitive deficits,which will contribute to improve their quality of life and of communication with family and medical caretakers.

Peripheral nerve blockade is one of the therapeutic possibilities to treat spasticity of various muscles. Percutaneous nerve stimulation allows accurate location of nerves and neurolysis can be performed using intraneural injection of 65% ethanol or 5 to 12% phenol. Spastic contraction of various muscle groups is a common source of pain and disability which prevents from having efficient rehabilitation. Test-blocks as well as neurolytic blocks are possible in most of motor nerves of the upper and lower limbs and main indications are spastic sequelae of stroke and spinal trauma but also of multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy and chronic coma. The use of percutaneous nerve stimulation allows accurate location and four nerves are more frequently treated: pectoral nerve loop, median, obturator and tibial nerves. In patients with spasticity of the adductor thigh muscles, nerve blocks are performed via a combined approach using fluoroscopy and nerve stimulation to identify the obturator nerve. No complications occurred and minor side effects are transient painful phenomena during injection. These approaches proved to be accurate, fast, simple, highly successful and reproducible. Percutaneous neurolytic procedures should be done as early as possible, as soon as spasticity becomes painful and disabling in patients with neurological sequelae of stroke, head trauma or any lesion of the motor neuron.

Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of biphosphonates (BPs) in complex regional pain syndrome I or reflex sympathetic dystrophy and to specify their place in this chronic painful syndrome., Methods: A literature review of Medline and Embase with use of a combination of 3 key words: biphosphonates therapy, reflex sympathetic dystrophy, complex regional pain syndrome I, controlled study. Each article was classified by 2 independent reviewers according to Aguilar's method into high, middle or low quality., Results: Three second-generation BPs were tested in the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: pamidronate, alendronate and clodronate. Many open studies investigated pamidronate, but only 2 were randomised and controlled: a low-quality trial comparing pamidronate with placebo and a middle-quality trial comparing pamidronate with calcitonine. Two high-quality trials were performed, 1 with alendronate and 1 with clodronate. Middle-quality trial and high-quality trials reported positive effects on pain with BPs in recent reflex sympathetic dystrophy (disease duration less than eight months). Side effects (fever, asymptomatic hypocalcemia) were observed frequently but disappeared quickly., Conclusion: BPs can be used in recent reflex sympathetic dystrophy when calcitonin is inefficient or when calcitonin injections are not well tolerated.

The locked-in syndrome (pseudocoma) describes patients who are awake and conscious but selectively deefferented, i.e., have no means of producing speech, limb or facial movements. Acute ventral pontine lesions are its most common cause. People with such brainstem lesions often remain comatose for some days or weeks, needing artificial respiration and then gradually wake up, but remaining paralyzed and voiceless, superficially resembling patients in a vegetative state or akinetic mutism. In acute locked-in syndrome (LIS), eye-coded communication and evaluation of cognitive and emotional functioning is very limited because vigilance is fluctuating and eye movements may be inconsistent, very small, and easily exhausted. It has been shown that more than half of the time it is the family and not the physician who first realized that the patient was aware. Distressingly, recent studies reported that the diagnosis of LIS on average takes over 2.5 months. In some cases it took 4-6 years before aware and sensitive patients, locked in an immobile body, were recognized as being conscious. Once a LIS patient becomes medically stable, and given appropriate medical care, life expectancy increases to several decades. Even if the chances of good motor recovery are very limited, existing eye-controlled, computer-based communication technology currently allow the patient to control his environment, use a word processor coupled to a speech synthesizer, and access the worldwide net. Healthy individuals and medical professionals sometimes assume that the quality of life of an LIS patient is so poor that it is not worth living. On the contrary, chronic LIS patients typically self-report meaningful quality of life and their demand for euthanasia is surprisingly infrequent. Biased clinicians might provide less aggressive medical treatment and influence the family in inappropriate ways. It is important to stress that only the medically stabilized, informed LIS patient is competent to consent to or refuse life-sustaining treatment. Patients suffering from LIS should not be denied the right to die - and to die with dignity - but also, and more importantly, they should not be denied the right to live - and to live with dignity and the best possible revalidation, and pain and symptom management. In our opinion, there is an urgent need for a renewed ethical and medicolegal framework for our care of locked-in patients.

Peripheral nerve blockade is one of the therapeutic options for spasticity of various muscles. Percutaneous nerve stimulation allows accurate location of nerves and neurolysis can be performed using intraneural injection of 65% ethanol or 5 to 12% phenol. Spastic contraction of various muscle groups is a common source of pain and disability which prevents efficient rehabilitation. Neurolytic blocks are possible in most of motor nerves of the upper and lower limbs and main indications are spastic sequelae of stroke and spinal trauma but also of multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy and chronic coma. The use of percutaneous nerve stimulation allows accurate location and four nerves are more frequently treated: pectoral nerve loop, median, obturator and tibial nerves. In patients with spasticity of the adductor thigh muscles, nerve blocks are performed via a combined approach using fluoroscopy and nerve stimulation to identify the obturator nerve. No complications occur and minor side effects are transient painful phenomena during injection. These approaches have proved to be accurate, fast, simple, highly successful and reproducible. Percutaneous neurolytic procedures, should be performed as early as possible, as soon as spasticity becomes painful and disabling in patients with neurological sequelae of stroke, head trauma or any lesion of the motor neurons.

We have investigated with light and electron microscope immunocytochemistry the aminergic and peptidergic innervation of Onuf's nucleus in adult baboons. This nucleus, located in the ventrolateral part of the sacral spinal cord (S2 and S3), is considered to control urethral and anal sphincters and penile muscles. By comparison of intact and transected spinal cords, we have found that serotoninergic innervation has two origins: first, supraspinal, innervating the whole nucleus, with a possible predominance in the dorsal half; and second, intraspinal, corresponding to the ventral half of the nucleus. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone innervation appears largely coincident with serotonin, both in intact and transected spinal cords. Noradrenaline is exclusively of supraspinal origin, as attested by its disappearance below the level of the section. Substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and Leu- and Met-enkephalin, which profusely innervate Onuf's nucleus, are on the contrary not affected by the transection. They most likely originate from the cord itself or the dorsal root ganglia. Thus, Onuf's nucleus innervation in the baboon arises both from supraspinal and intraspinal sources. The present study provides an anatomical basis for both voluntary and reflex controls of excretory and sexual functions in a primate. The same neurotransmitter (serotonin) according to its cell origin and discrete topography could exert different influences upon the same effector system.

In this study, we investigated the effects of the neonatal removal of the right superior cervical ganglion on the serotonin-like and thyrotropin-releasing-hormone-like immunoreactivities (5-HT-LI and TRH-LI) in the intermediolateral cell column (IML) of the spinal cord by quantitative image analysis. Two weeks after the lesion, we observed a 60% reduction in 5-HT-LI, while TRH-LI was not significantly reduced, in the right IML (lesioned side) at T1-2 levels. One month after the lesion, 5-HT-LI and TRH-LI were significantly reduced by 60% in the right IML at T1-2 levels. After 3 months, this decrease persisted at this level. In addition, we observed a 30% loss of the 5-HT-LI in the right IML at T3-4 levels, whereas TRH-LI did not decrease significantly at T3-4 levels. These findings are discussed and compared with those of other experimental studies on serotonergic reorganization in the rat spinal cord.