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La peritonite fungina rappresenta una grave complicanza infettiva che si manifesta nei pazienti con insufficienza renale cronica in trattamento con dialisi peritoneale. Presenta una mortalità superiore al 25% dei casi (1, 2) ed è responsabile di ‘drop out’ dalla metodica, rimozione del catetere di Tenckhoff ed ospedalizzazione. La diagnosi eziologica viene, spesso, posta tardivamente a causa della aspecificità dei sintomi e segni clinici della FP rispetto alle più frequenti forme batteriche nonché della lenta crescita colturale delle specie fungine. La rimozione del catetere è immediatamente indicata dopo la identificazione microscopica o colturale dei funghi (International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis Guidelines/Recommendation: 2010 update) (4). Per quanto riguarda, invece, la chemioterapia antimicotica, le linee guida internazionali non forniscono chiare indicazioni riguardo la scelta, le dosi e le varie associazioni terapeutiche né per ciò che si riferisce alla durata del trattamento, che talora è necessario proseguire per diverse settimane o mesi. In questo report descriviamo il caso di una signora di 70 anni, in trattamento con APD, che sviluppò una FP da Aspergillus niger. La pronta rimozione del catetere peritoneale e la somministrazione di voriconazolo per via endovenosa portarono a un rapido miglioramento della sintomatologia clinica ed alla completa risoluzione di tale complicanza.

La sindrome cardio-renale (SCR) è una sindrome clinica ben nota, che descrive tanto gli effetti negativi dell'insufficienza renale sull'equilibrio cardio-circolatorio quanto quelli dell'insufficienza cardiaca sulla funzione renale. Molti autori hanno studiato l'utilità di marcatori sierologici ai fini dell'identificazione e del monitoraggio ambulatoriale delle varie forme di questa sindrome. L'analisi dei livelli sierici dei peptidi natriuretici è, al momento, quella maggiormente utilizzata, in quanto essi stessi non sono solo direttamente associati alla gravità delhinsufficienza cardiaca, ma anche capaci di rilevare precocemente la disfunzione renale, certamente prima che sia possible osservare un incremento nei livelli sierici di creatinina. NGAL, cistatina C, NAG, KIM-1 e IL-18 rappresentano interessanti biomarcatori per la diagnosi precoce di danno renale acuto (AKI), e quindi per la diagnosi precoce delle forme renocardiache acute, mentre il loro utilizzo in altre forme di SCR non appare codificato. Al contrario, la valutazione di KIM-1 e IL-18 sembra più utile per cercare una diagnostica differenziale tra forme diverse di insufficienza renale acuta. (Cardionephrology)

La depressione nei pazienti affetti da patologia renale è un problema rilevante poiché essa è associata a un aumento del tasso di decesso e ospedalizzazione e a una riduzione della compliance. Il trattamento farmacologico si presenta come la terapia elettiva, tuttavia si riscontra una maggiore difficoltà nel trattare i sintomi depressivi che si presentano in comorbidità con la patologia renale rispetto a quando la depressione è l'unica patologia. Diverse ricerche mostrano che questo problema può essere affrontato attraverso un intervento integrato farmacologico e psicoterapeutico, il quale ha un effetto additivo nel trattamento di questa patologia. Per quanto riguarda la patologia renale diversi studi suggeriscono l'efficacia di un intervento psicoterapeutico nel trattamento dei sintomi depressivi, tuttavia sono necessarie ulteriori ricerche che confrontino l'efficacia dei diversi approcci psicoterapeutici.

Presupposto fondamentale per una buona efficienza dialitica è la presenza di un accesso vascolare ben funzionante. La fistola arterovenosa con vasi nativi rappresenta l'accesso vascolare di prima scelta, sia per il basso rischio infettivo sia per la lunga sopravvivenza. Nel caso di grave depauperamento del patrimonio vascolare dell'avambraccio, la protesi in politetrafluoroetilene costituisce una valida alternativa. Il monitoraggio periodico con eco-color Doppler si è dimostrato in grado di individuare disfunzioni precoci sia della fistola arterovenosa che della protesi, anticipandone l'eventuale procedura interventistica e migliorandone la sopravvivenza a lungo termine. Tuttavia, è ancora controversa l'opportunità di un programma di monitoraggio ecografico sistematico dell'accesso vascolare.

Il paziente nefropatico cronico facilmente presenta alterazioni morfologiche e funzionali dell'apparato gastroenterico. I segni più comuni e precoci nella sindrome uremica cronica sono rappresentati dai disturbi gastrointestinali. Da alcuni decenni abbiamo a disposizione dei farmaci con potente azione inibente la secrezione acida gastrica: gli inibitori di pompa protonica (IPP) hanno una struttura chimica affine, uno stesso meccanismo d'azione e sono molto importanti per il trattamento delle patologie acido correlate, per l'eradicazione dell'Helicobacter Pylori, per la prevenzione e la cura della gastropatia da farmaci antinfiammatori non steroidei (FANS). Somministriamo ai nostri pazienti questa classe di farmaci, con terapie che continuano nel tempo, nonostante la risoluzione della malattia (gastroprotezione). Ma gli IPP possono essere utilizzati indistintamente nei nefropatici cronici oppure sarebbe utile conoscere il profilo del farmaco per una corretta scelta? In questo articolo si argomenta che i loro effetti collaterali non sono molto rilevanti e sono abbastanza simili: il loro impiego nel lungo termine è sicuro. La potenza e l'efficacia dei vari IPP, dall'analisi comparativa dei vari trial clinici, risulta essere molto simile sulla base dei milligrammi di sostanza utilizzata. L'unica eccezione illustrata in questo lavoro è rappresentata da 6 pazienti in emodialisi, trattati con lansoprazolo (15 mg), che presentavano gastriti e ulcere peptiche complicate da gravi episodi di ematemesi e melena con conseguente anemia. Tutti gli IPP hanno dimostrato un'efficacia clinica sovrapponibile, tuttavia vanno valutati di volta in volta i vantaggi (relativi) di ciascun IPP. I criteri di scelta di un IPP sembrano basati, principalmente sulle indicazioni autorizzate, sulle formulazioni disponibili, sul profilo di sicurezza del farmaco.

Le infezioni delle vie urinarie costituiscono un problema clinico frequente in tutte le età. L'ecografìa è uno strumento prezioso nella diagnosi e nel management delle infezioni, consentendo di diagnosticare rapidamente complicanze e fattori predisponenti. Questa review passa in rassegna gli aspetti ecografìci delle infezioni della vescica, della prostata, delle vesci-cole seminali, dei didimi, degli epididimi e dello scroto, fornendo un pratico strumento di consultazione rapida al nefrologo.

Abstract non disponibile

Il rene è coinvolto, in prima battuta, nel mantenimento dell'omeostasi dei fluidi e dell'equilibrio idro-elettrolitico ed acido-base, nonché nell'eliminazione delle scorie tossiche. La funzione renale sembra essere strettamente collegata a quella cardiovascolare e, negli ultimi anni, il termine di ‘sindrome Cardio-Renale’ è stato utilizzato per spiegare le correlazioni cliniche tra patologia renale e cardiaca. Lo scompenso cardiaco congestizio (SCC) rappresenta la prima causa di ospedalizzazione nei Paesi occidentali e i pazienti affetti presentano spesso, in associazione, un quadro di malattia renale cronica (MRC) di grado variabile. Sono stati considerati diversi modelli fisiologici e fisiopatologici per spiegare come una condizione di malattia renale cronica possa influenzare lo stato di insufficienza cardiaca. Sicuramente la via metabolica del guanosin monofosfato ciclico (cGMP) e quello dell'ossido nitrico (NO) giocano un ruolo fondamentale di concerto con l'azione dei peptidi natriuretici atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) e brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) sotto il controllo del sistema delle fosfodiesterasi sieriche. I pazienti con sovraccarico di circolo necessitano di terapie farmacologiche specifiche. La terapia diuretica, spesso in associazione (vedi tiazidici + diuretici d'ansa), rappresenta ancora quella di prima scelta ma, nei pazienti, refrattari alla terapia diuretica a dosi massimali, l'impiego di metodiche extracorporee, quali l'ultrafiltrazione (nelle sue diverse modalità d'impiego), può essere di grande aiuto per il paziente scompensato dal punto di vista cardiologico. (Cardionephrology)

La prevenzione primaria e secondaria della insufficienza renale cronica da nefroangiosclerosi è rappresentata dallo stretto controllo dei valori pressori e dalla riduzione della proteinuria. In presenza di proteinuria, il controllo pressorio va ottenuto con il blocco del sistema renina-angiotensina anche in pazienti con importante riduzione della funzione renale. La terapia di associazione di ACE inibitore con sartano non sembra portare vantaggi aggiuntivi ma può essere saggiata in pazienti selezionati con proteinuria persistente superiore al grammo/die. L'associazione ACE inibitore con antialdosteronico sembra promettere bene ma occorrono ulteriori studi, possibilmente multicentrici.

Introduction: Imported parasitosis, which do not require an invertebrate vector, are extremely dangerous and can lead to the occurrence of disease in currently parasite free areas. In the present study we report a case of multi-parasitic infection in a young immigrant from Ghana to Italy caused by filaria, Schistosoma sp. and Strongyloides sp., Case Presentation: A 27-year-old Ghanaian man attended the Hospital of Nuoro (Sardinia), Italy, at the end of August 2015, claiming pain to the kidney and hypertensive crisis; the patient presented with dyspnea and epistaxis, chronic itchy skin of the back, shoulders, arms and legs, anuria and high creatinine, metabolic acidosis and hypereosinophilic syndrome. Serological test for parasitic infections were done, and showed a marked positivity for filaria, Schistosoma sp. and Strongyloides sp. The patient started the treatment immediately with two doses per day of Bassado Antibiotic (tetracycline) for twenty days and then with a single dose of 3 mg of ivermectin that was repeated after 3 months., Conclusions: Immigrant patients from endemic areas who show clinical signs, such as a general itching on the back, shoulders and arms and legs, should have a thorough history in order to make early diagnosis and prevent further complications. Therefore, general practitioners and doctors in Europe and in other parasitosis non-endemic countries, should consider to test for parasites in any immigrant from endemic countries to aid in establishing the final diagnosis and prevent further complications., Competing Interests: No Conflict of Interest is declared, (Copyright (c) 2020 Maura Fiamma, Silvia S Longoni, Emmanuel E Siddig, Sonia Attene, Vito Astone, Antonio Nicoletti , Bianca Paglietti , Antonella Santona, Angela Fele, Riccardo Ivaldi, Francesco Logias.)

Background: Hemodiafiltration with on-line endogenous reinfusion (HFR) is an extracorporeal dialytic method that combines diffusion, convection and adsorption. HFR-Supra (HFR-S) is a second-generation system with increased convective permeability and adsorption capability. Previous studies suggested that HFR reduces oxidative stress compared to standard haemodialysis. The principal aim of the present study was to compare antioxidant vitamins behavior and oxidative status of hemodialysis patients treated with HFR and HFR-S., Methods: The study was designed as a multicenter, randomized, crossover trial. Forty-one patients were recruited from 19 dialysis centers and after a 4-month washout stabilization period in on-line hemodiafiltration (ol-HDF), each patient was randomized to a sequence of treatments (HFR-S followed by HFR or viceversa) with each treatment applied over 6 months. Plasma levels of Advanced Oxidation Protein Products, Total Antioxidant Status, vitamins C, A and E and their ligands (Retinol Binding Protein and total lipids) were measured at baseline and at the end of each treatment period., Results: Results show that the higher convective permeability of HFR-S with respect to HFR did not produce additional beneficial effects on the patients' oxidative status, a slight decrease of both Vitamin A and Retinol Binding Protein being the only difference registered in the long-term. However, as compared to ol-HDF, both the re-infusive techniques allowed to reduce the intradialytic loss of Vitamin C and, in the long-term, improve the patients' oxidative status and increase Retinol Binding Protein plasma values. No significant differences were found between the Vitamin C concentration of pre- and post cartridge UF neither in HFR-S nor in HFR showing that the sorbent resin does not adsorb Vitamin C., Conclusion: HFR-S and HFR are almost equivalent in term of impact on antioxidant vitamins and oxidative status of hemodialysis patients. Nonetheless, as compared to ol-HDF, both treatments produced a sensible sparing of Vitamin C and may represent a new approach for reducing oxidative stress and related complications in dialysis patients. Long-term effects of re-infusive treatments on patients' cardiovascular morbidity and mortality need to be evaluated., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT01492491 , retrospectively registered in 10 December 2011.

Aneurysms are a common and often difficult complication seen with arteriovenous vascular access for haemodialysis. The purpose of this narrative review is to define and describe the scale of the problem and suggested therapeutic strategies. A narrative review of the published literature illustrated by individual cases is presented with the aim of summarising the relevant literature. The definitions of aneurysm are inconsistent throughout the literature and therefore systematic review is impossible. They vary from qualitative descriptions to quantitative definitions using absolute size, relative size and also size plus characteristics. The incidence and aetiology are also ill defined but separation into true aneurysms and false, or pseudoaneurysms may be helpful in planning treatment, which may be conservative, surgical or radiological. The lack of useful definitions and classification along with the multitude of management strategies proposed make firm evidence based conclusions difficult to draw. Further robust well designed studies are required to define best practice for this common problem.

Background: Whether convective therapies allow better control of serum phosphate (P) is still undefined, and no data are available concerning on-line haemofiltration (HF). The objectives of the study are to evaluate the effect of convective treatments (CTs) on P levels in comparison with low-flux haemodialysis (HD) and to evaluate the correlates of serum phosphate in a post hoc analysis of a randomized clinical trial., Methods: This analysis was performed in the database of a multicentre, open label and randomized controlled study in which 146 chronic HD patients from 27 Italian centres were randomly assigned to HD (70 patients) or CTs: on-line pre-dilution HF (36 patients) or on-line pre-dilution haemodiafiltration (40 patients)., Results: CTs did not affect P (P = 0.526), calcium (Ca) (P = 0.849) and parathyroid hormone levels (P = 0.622). P levels were associated with the use of phosphate binders including aluminium-based phosphate binders (P < 0.001) and sevelamer (P < 0.001), pre-dialysis bicarbonate levels (P < 0.001) and pre-dialysis blood K levels (P < 0.001). On multivariate analysis (generalized linear model), serum P was again largely unassociated with CTs (P = 0.631). Notably, participating centres were by far the strongest independent correlate of serum P, explaining 45.3% of the variance of serum P over the trial and this association was confirmed at multivariate analysis. Bicarbonate (P < 0.001) and, to a weaker extent, serum K (P = 0.032) were independently related to serum P., Conclusions: In comparison with low-flux HD, CTs did not significantly affect serum P levels. Participating centres were the main source of P variability during the trial followed by treatment with phosphate binders, serum bicarbonate and, to a weak extent, serum potassium levels (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT011583309)., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of ERA-EDTA. All rights reserved.)

Diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy is generally based, rather than on histological confirmation, on clinical criteria (long history of diabetes, presence of proteinuria, diabetic retinopathy or peripheral neuropathy). This clinical approach has perhaps limited utility in DM2 patients, because only 50% of them show microvascular complications in presence of nephropathy. Eco-colour-Doppler sampling of interlobular renal arteries and determination of their resistance indices (RI), was proposed in the differential diagnosis of numerous nephropathies. Aim of this study was to evaluate whether RI can be useful in discerning non-diabetic renal disease (NDRD), in order to better define indications to perform renal biopsy among proteinuric DM2 patients. All patients were submitted to: echo-colour-Doppler study of renal vessels; systematic screening for diabetic retinopathy; needle renal biopsy. RI resulted to be significantly higher in diabetic glomerulosclerosis (GSD) group as compared with NDRD group, while no significant difference was found with respect to NDRDs overlapping GSD (overlapping group). The last one showed however median RI significantly higher than isolated NDRD group. Normalized chi square Pearson for the hypothesis that RI can predict GSD resulted 0.73, while it resulted 0.43 for the hypothesis that diabetic retinopathy can predict GSD. Echo-colour-Doppler can significantly contribute, more than the other parameters proposed (nephritic or nephrotic syndrome, hematuria, diabetic retinopathy), to the identification of underlying nephropathy in DM2 subjects. In the light of our experience, it seems that the detection of RI values > 0.72 suggests the diagnosis of GSD or mixed forms, reducing the indications to renal biopsy only in presence of values < 0.72.

Vascular calcifications are associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Their prevalence is higher in patients with chronic kidney disease than in the general population and they are linked not only to classical risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia and smoking but also to derangements in mineral metabolism and to chronic inflammation. The development of vascular calcifications is an active phenomenon that is linked to an imbalance between promoting and inhibitory factors. They affect also young patients on dialysis and it is therefore necessary to recognize them at an early stage. The distinction between intima and media calcification can be important for a different therapeutic approach. There are a number of devices for the identification of vascular calcifications, including x-ray imaging, ultrasonography and computerized technologies. The purpose of this paper is to show the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonography in comparison to other tools for the diagnosis of vascular calcifications.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) is one of the most interesting and promising clinical applications of imaging and ultrasound. Thanks to the absence of ionizing radiation, the lack of nephrotoxicity and low cost it has the potential to become a reference in imaging of the kidney. This review, besides providing a brief description of the proper methodology, presents possible applications of CEUS in nephrology and urology, including renal ischemia, the differential diagnosis of cystic and solid lesions, follow-up of ablative therapies, kidney trauma, kidney transplant, inflammatory diseases, ischemic nephropathy and vesicoureteral reflux.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a common clinical problem, especially among women. Ultrasound assessment is indicated in case of complicated UTIs, in particular in children, pregnant women and patients with chronic kidney disease. Even though B-mode imaging alone is rarely diagnostic in case of particular kidney infections such as focal and multifocal acute pyelonephritis, Doppler and power-Doppler (PD) techniques are able to increase its sensitivity. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) further improves the signal-to-noise ratio, thus increasing the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in case of renal infectious disease. Recent studies performed on kidney transplant recipients have indeed demonstrated the high sensitivity and specificity of CEUS in diagnosing acute pyelonephritis. Moreover, ultrasonography is a useful diagnostic tool in case of kidney abscesses, emphysematous pyelonephritis, early phases of pyonephrosis, and in the evaluation and monitoring of echinococcal cysts. Ultrasound imaging is less specific in diagnosing xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis, malacoplakia and renal tuberculosis. Finally, several authors recommend routine ultrasound assessment in HIV patients, given the high incidence of renal complications in this population of patients.

Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of mordibity and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) affected by a series of risk factors (hypertension, anemia, left ventricular hypertrophy, cardiac failure and dyslipidemia). The combined presence of these factors raises the cardiovascular risk in CKD patients considerably compared with that of the general population. Nephrologists can play a role in preventing and treating these risk factors and thereby delaying the development of CKD. In preventing CKD, nephrologists who practice ultrasound techniques should have basic know how of echocardiography so that they can screen CKD patients for early referral to a cardiologist. Echocardiography is a noninvasive ultrasound technique that requires adequately trained doctors to perform it. Nephrologists who practice it need to obtain good training and postgraduate certification of competence in echocardiography. These nephrologists should team up with cardiologists rather than replace them, and at the same time be aware that they possess the basic knowledge to manage cardiovascular disease in CKD patients.

In recent decades, the survival of dialysis patients has gradually increased thanks to the evolution of dialysis techniques and the availability of new drug therapies. These elements have led to an increased incidence of a series of dialysis-related diseases that might compromise the role of dialysis rehabilitation: vascular disease, skeletal muscle disease, infectious disease, cystic kidney disease and cancer. The nephrologist is therefore in charge of a patient group with complex characteristics including the presence of indwelling vascular and/or peritoneal catheters, conditions secondary to chronic renal failure (hyperparathyroidism, anemia, amyloid disease, etc.) and superimposed disorders due to old age (cardiac and respiratory failure, cancer, type 2 diabetes mellitus, etc.). Early clinical and organizational management of such patients is essential in a modern and ''economic'' vision of nephrology. The direct provision of ultrasound services by the nephrologist responds to these requirements. A minimum level of expertise in diagnostic ultrasonography of the urinary tract and dialysis access should be part of the nephrologist's cultural heritage, acquired through theoretical and practical training programs validated by scientific societies, especially for those who choose to specialize in these procedures and become experts in imaging or interventional ultrasonography.

Thanks to the wide geographical diffusion, low cost and lack of ionizing radiation, ultrasound is now the most widely used imaging technique in clinical practice, second only to chest radiography. Recent technological innovations and introduction of ultrasound contrast agents, further expanded the fields of application of ultrasound, guarantying for the future to this technique an important role in imaging of the urinary tract. The nephrologist must be able to exploit the potential offered by technological innovations in ultrasound imaging for the study of the kidney. The proper management of equipment, in fact, allows to obtain ultrasound images in gray scale of the highest quality, to optimize the diagnostic accuracy of Doppler techniques and take full advantage of the tools offered by means of ultrasound contrast agents.

Background: Predictors of haemoglobin (Hb) levels and resistance to erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in dialysis patients have not yet been clearly defined. Some mainly uncontrolled studies suggest that online haemodiafiltration (HDF) may have a beneficial effect on Hb, whereas no data are available concerning online haemofiltration (HF). The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of convective treatments (CTs) on Hb levels and ESA resistance in comparison with low-flux haemodialysis (HD) and to evaluate the predictors of these outcomes., Methods: Primary multivariate analysis was made of a pre-specified secondary outcome of a multicentre, open-label, randomized controlled study in which 146 chronic HD patients from 27 Italian centres were randomly assigned to HD (70 patients) or CTs: online pre-dilution HF (36 patients) or online pre-dilution HDF (40 patients)., Results: CTs did not affect Hb levels (P = 0.596) or ESA resistance (P = 0.984). Hb correlated with polycystic kidney disease (P = 0.001), C-reactive protein (P = 0.025), ferritin (P = 0.018), ESA dose (P < 0.001) and total cholesterol (P = 0.021). The participating centres were the main source of Hb variability (partial eta(2) 0.313, P < 0.001). ESA resistance directly correlated with serum ferritin (P = 0.030) and beta2 microglobulin (P = 0.065); participating centres were again a major source of variance (partial eta(2) 0.367, P < 0.001). Transferrin saturation did not predict either outcome variables (P = 0.277 and P = 0.170)., Conclusions: In comparison with low-flux HD, CTs did not significantly improve Hb levels or ESA resistance. The main sources of variability were participating centres, ESA dose and the underlying disease.