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This paper proposes a comparison between child dummies and cadavers involved in identical experimental collisions, and restrained with child restraint systems. This comparison involves both kinematic and physical measurements when available, taking into account injuries observed on cadavers. It is known that the safety performance of child restraint systems is impeded by a lack of knowledge of the biofidelity of child dummies. From a limited number of tests, indications are given concerning the representativeness of the dummies and the consequences for the design of child restraint systems. (A). For the covering abstract of the compendium see IRRD 880073.

The use of booster cushions by children more than 3 years old is a relatively new behaviour in France. In fact, the restraint of children in systems adapted to their age and anthropometry, has only been mandatory since January 1st, 1992. The French car manufacturers have tested, during the last years, a great number of boosters in a car environment. In particular, a comparative study between "simple" cushions and boosters with a back-rest (in order to satisfy parents requiring better comfort for their children) has been undertaken. On the basis of these tests, the manufacturers have made a selection for their cars, according to a certain number of criteria which are described. It is well known that the main advantage of boosters is to be very easy of use. A complementary accidentological analysis made recently in France reveals however some problems of injuries linked to misuse of these restraint systems. (A) For the covering abstract of the compendium see IRRD 880073.

Because laws mandating use of seat belts by motor vehicle drivers and front seat passengers have been passed throughout the developed world, it is becoming increasingly common to see parents protected from injuries whereas their children are abandoned to the tragic effects of chance and biomechanics. In France, the situation is especially critical. The law passed in 1975 requiring that all children use the back seat has reduced the risk of death and severe injury but nevertheless affords inadequate protection: each year, among children aged 0 to 10 years, several hundred are killed and nearly 10,000 injured in car accidents. This situation can be decisively improved, as shown by the figures in the United States and most European countries where use of child restraint devices (CRD) is mandatory. CRDs are designed to protect the child in the event of an accident by reducing the risk of injury due to ejection or projection against the inside of the vehicle: they play the same role as the seat belt for adults. France is the European country with the lowest rate of use of CRDs and the highest rate of child deaths due to motor vehicle occupant injuries. To improve this situation, regulations are being developed by the French government; use of appropriate CRDs will be mandatory for all children aged 0 to 10 years starting on January 1 st, 1992.

Car-pedestrian accidents were selected with reference to criteria like relevance in terms of injury severities, representativity and reproducibility, aiming for as accurate as possible reconstructions by dummy and cadaver tests. Parameters necessary for performance of these reconstructions were evaluated from the data of accident investigation teams. Preliminary tests were performed by research departments of automobile manufacturers to check the estimated conditions of these accidents before performing their reconstructions. A particular aim was to obtain insights into the mechanisms leading to injuries in pedestrian accidents; more generally, reconstructing actual accidents is a privileged approach to determine human tolerance limits and the corresponding protection criteria on dummies; the injuries resulting from the actual accidents are consequently compared with the data measured on dummies and cadavers in the reconstruction experiments. Conclusions are also related to the methodology of such reconstructions.

Safety of children as car occupants raises a specific problem: it is necessary to take into account two factors which are particular to them: their very fast growth and their behavior, which corresponds to a need for movement. An analysis of statistical and accidentological data points to the fact that whereas traffic accidents account for 25% of adult deaths, they account for nearly 50% of deaths for children (all kinds of road-users). Measures were adopted in France; such as the obligation for children of less than 10-years-old to travel on rear seats of cars and the definition of an homologation procedure for children restraint devices, with the aim of limiting the consequences of these accidents. The most common restraint devices look like little individual seats and are designed to protect young children (less than 3-years-old). Recently, new restraint devices, called "cushions", were developed. They are designed for children of over 3 and they can be used almost up to small adult sizes. They enable some improvements in the location of the adult belt on the child's body; thus, improving safety. Several cushions were submitted to simulated frontal collisions, by using them in a car body fixed to a sled; the impact severity was similar to that encountered in some European restraint system certification tests. These runs brought to light the dynamic response obtained with these cushions and their efficiency, as regards the restraint of child dummies. From these results and with the help of an anthropometric survey concerning the heights of children between 3 and 10 years old, cushion shapes were defined, to be used simultaneously with a 3-pt-belt. This cushion was tested with the 3-year and 6-year child dummies and proved to be very efficient as regards safety; it also appears suitable from the standpoint of comfort.

Biomechanical studies related to the head have been mainly directed towards the determination of cerebral tolerance to impact in the absence of fracture. However, the frequency of skull trauma producing complex fractures and cerebral lesions linked to these fractures should be taken into consideration. On a human being, impacts under similar mechanical conditions can produce either fatal encephalic lesions without fractures or skull fractures with encephalic lesions if the subject has a different skull morphology. A sample of 146 subjects has been studied to determine the relation between the morphological characteristics of the skulls (weight of the skull cap, thickness, weight of the cranial skeleton...), their mineralization. The mechanical tests were performed on bone fragments (bending and shearing tests). Nine accelerometers were used during the experiments of various types of impacts. The results were computerized. The skull fractures observed (a total of 45) are described. An analysis of the results has been made and enables us to make a correlation between the characteristics of the skull and those of the impacts with the type of fractures. For the covering abstract of the conference see HS-036 716. (Author/TRRL)

Experimental simulations of car pedestrian collisions were conducted with production cars impacting a pedestrian dummy derived from PART 572; the tests were performed under well standardized conditions to try to limit experimental dispersions. The results corresponding to one series of tests are presented. The comparison of kinematical behaviour of this dummy and human subjects impacted by another way under identical realistic test conditions displayed differences in kinematics and response at impact between these two kinds of surrogates. These differences can be explained largely by the greater stiffness of the PART 572 dummy, as compared to human subjects. For this reason, it was determined to duplicate the tests performed with the PART 572 dummy with a new series of tests with one APROD dummy, modified in a pedestrian version. This dummy is more flexible, especially at the thorax and shoulder levels than the PART 572 one and it may be supposed that these improvements for side impact would give also a better response, in pedestrian accidents situation. So, ten tests are conducted with the APROD dummy in as identical as possible test conditions. The kinematics between this dummy and the PART 572 one at impact against the vehicle are compared and the measurements values related to protection criteria are analyzed with reference to the results obtained previously with the PART 572 dummy.

This paper is related to the pedestrians struck by a vehicle. From the results of multiple runs performed with a previously validated mathematical model, an equation is defined which describes the trajectories of their heads. When the distribution in heights of the pedestrians and the distribution in speeds of the colliding vehicles are taken into account, this equation enables the prediction of the head impact probability for the sundry areas of the front end of the vehicle, according to its profile.

Protection criteria aside from deflection are defined on the basis of measurement functions taken at various but unique points on the thorax (rib, spinal column); these functions may also use two points (two ribs, for example) which results in deflection intervening as a criterion. The conditions imposed by these criteria result in different requirements for vehicle wall conditions and thorax model construction. Mathematical modeling of the vehicle wall-thorax collision is performed in order to compare possible criteria on this basis. Concurrently, a statistical analysis performed on a sampling of side impacts occurring with human subjects permits injury severity to be expressed by means of several functions whose predictive qualities are unequal. These functions include deflection, and their literal expression takes into account the state of the subjects' bone structure. The criteria produced by these predictive functions are used in the preceding mathematical model. The possibility of optionally using different criteria is discussed.

Experimental car-pedestrian collisions were performed with a modified PART 572 dummy and cadavers; they involved some reconstructions of real accidents. These collisions brought to light the differences between the kinematics and the impact responses when dummy and human subject are compared under identical and realistic test conditions to simulate a pedestrian struck sideways. These differences are mainly due to the overall relative stiffness of the PART 572 dummy when compared to cadavers. Same-type collisions were therefore carried out again with other dummies which were designed so as to simulate human response in lateral impact better; thus they were also assumed to display better kinematics as pedestrians. APROD and ONSER dummies were used; when compared to PART 572, their flexibility and deformation capabilities are greater, in particular as regards their thoraxes and shoulders.