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O jogo CSI inclui um conjunto de análises da genética e biologia molecular, aplicadas no contexto da investigação de um crime. Os alunos assumem a posição de investigadores e devem analisar um conjunto de pistas para indicar um suspeito. O jogo favorece o desenvolvimento de trabalhos em equipe, a troca de conhecimentos e a criatividade. Com aplicação deste jogo, o professor pode abordar integradamente diferentes temas como tipo sanguíneo, cariótipo humano, composição e sequenciamento do DNA, tornando o processo de ensino mais dinâmico e estimulante. A aplicação deste jogo pode ser realizada com estudantes de ensino médio e de graduação.

B chromosomes are extra-genomic components of cells found in individuals and in populations of some eukaryotic organisms. They have been described since the first observations of chromosomes, but several aspects of their biology remain enigmatic. Despite being present in hundreds of fungi, plants, and animal species, only a small number of B chromosomes have been investigated through high-throughput analyses, revealing the remarkable mechanisms employed by these elements to ensure their maintenance. Populations of the

B chromosomes occur in different species of the small characid fishes of the genus Moenkhausia. These supernumerary elements, that do not recombine with chromosomes of the standard A complement and follow their own evolutionary mechanism vary in number, morphology, and distribution. Here, we show karyotypic data of individuals of 2 populations of Moenkhausia oligolepis of the Brazilian Amazon (Pedro Correia and Taboquinha streams, Tocantins river basin), both with a diploid number of 50 chromosomes and karyotypic formula of 10m + 32sm + 8a. In addition to the normal complement, we also observed the occurrence of B chromosomes in the 2 populations with intra- and interindividual variation ranging from 0 to 10 Bs, independent of sex. The C-banding pattern evidenced heterochromatic blocks located mainly in the pericentromeric region of the chromosomes, while the B chromosomes appeared euchromatic. Silver-stained nucleolus organizer regions were identified in multiples sites, and some of these blocks were positive when stained with chromomycin A3. The karyotype analysis and the application of whole-chromosome painting in populations of M. oligolepis reinforce the conservation of the basal diploid number for the genus, as well as the evolutionary tendency in these fishes to carry B chromosomes. Both populations turned out to be in different stages of stability and expansion of their B chromosomes. We further suggest that the origin of these chromosomes is due to the formation of isochromosomes. Here, we identified a pair of complement A chromosomes involved in this process.

Coleoptera is a mega-diverse order, but only about 1% of its species have been analyzed cytogenetically. In this order, the subfamily Alticinae presents many identification problems, mainly due to the occurrence of mimicry. The objective of this work was to cytogenetically characterize 3 very similar species of the genus Alagoasa (A. pantina, A.areata, and A.scissa). We used classical and molecular cytogenetic as well as molecular genetic techniques. All 3 species showed a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 22 (20+X+y), but differences in the morphology of the chromosomes. All had a meiotic formula of 2n = 10II+X+y and an X+y sex determination system with giant, fully asynaptic sex chromosomes, concordant characteristics observed in the subtribe Oedionychina. FISH demonstrated the presence of 18S and 5S rDNA clusters in 1 pair of autosomes, syntenic and colocalizing in the 3 analyzed species. However, in A. areata, heteromorphism between the cistrons was observed. The telomeric (TTAGG)n probe showed signals in all 3 species, with proximal signals in the X and dispersed signals in the y chromosome of A. areata, and 2 proximal signals in the X chromosome of A. scissa. Molecular analysis of the COI gene indicated that they are 3 distinct species, corroborating the observed cytogenetic characteristics.

Although peripheral nerve stimulation using intraneural electrodes has been shown to be an effective and reliable solution to restore sensory feedback after hand loss, there have been no reports on the characterization of multi-channel stimulation. A deeper understanding of how the simultaneous stimulation of multiple electrode channels affects the evoked sensations should help in improving the definition of encoding strategies for bidirectional prostheses. We characterized the sensations evoked by simultaneous stimulation of median and ulnar nerves (multi-channel configuration) in four transradial amputees who had been implanted with four TIMEs (Transverse Intrafascicular Multichannel Electrodes). The results were compared with the characterization of single-channel stimulation. The sensations were characterized in terms of location, extent, type, and intensity. Combining two or more single-channel configurations caused a linear combination of the sensation locations and types perceived with such single-channel stimulations. Interestingly, this was also true when two active sites from the same nerve were stimulated. When stimulating in multi-channel configuration, the charge needed from each electrode channel to evoke a sensation was significantly lower than the one needed in single-channel configuration (sensory facilitation). This result was also supported by electroencephalography (EEG) recordings during nerve stimulation. Somatosensory potentials evoked by multi-channel stimulation confirmed that sensations in the amputated hand were perceived by the subjects and that a perceptual sensory facilitation occurred. Our results should help the future development of more efficient bidirectional prostheses by providing guidelines for the development of more complex stimulation approaches to effectively restore multiple sensations at the same time.

The objective of the present work was to assess the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of semen from the surubim do Iguaçu (Steindachneridion melanodermatum). Induced spermiation was achieved in eleven males with mean weight of 1.76 ± 0.48 kg and average age of two years and semen was collected by stripping. The average volume was 1.34 ± 0.73 mL. The duration of sperm motility was 154.4 ± 72.6 and 149.0 ± 77.5 seconds after activation with hatchery water and distilled water, respectively. The sperm concentration estimated by hemocytometer was 5.423 ± 2.155 x 1010 spermatozoa/mL. The results indicate that S. melanodermatum semen is easily obtained during the spawning season and the seminal characteristics are adequate insemination and subsequent in vitro fertilization. Resumo O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar características qualitativas e quantitativas do sêmen de surubim do Iguaçu (Steindachneridion melanodermatum). Para as análises, utilizaram-se onze machos com peso médio de 1,76±0,48 kg e idade média de dois anos, submetidos ao tratamento de hipofisação. O volume médio de sêmen coletado foi de 1,34 ± 0,73 mL. O tempo médio de motilidade dos espermatozoides após a coleta foi de 154,4 ± 72,6 e 149,0 ± 77,5 segundos para ativação com água do tanque e água destilada, respectivamente. Para a concentração espermática, a média foi de 5,423 ± 2,155 x1010 espermatozoides/mL. Os resultados indicam que o sêmen de S. melanodermatum é facilmente obtido no período reprodutivo analisado, e que as características seminais avaliadas são adequadas para reprodução induzida.

The chromosomes of 2 flea beetle species from central Amazonia, Omophoita abbreviata and O. aequinoctialis (Alticini), were investigated through analysis of meiotic and mitotic cells. These species belong to the subtribe Oedionychina, a taxon that has unique cytogenetic features, such as giant sex chromosomes which are aligned at a distance during meiosis I (asynaptic). O. abbreviata and O. aequinoctialis have a meiotic formula of 10II + X + y, which is predominant in this subtribe. While the species of the genus Omophoita possess a relatively stable karyotype, a typical feature for Oedionychina, the present study identified inter- and intrapopulational variation in chromosome morphology, constitutive heterochromatin, and the presence and number of B chromosomes in O. aequinoctialis. In addition, FISH mapping of telomeric sequences revealed signals in the collochores, raising several questions on the chromosomal evolution in this group.

Representatives of the order Labriformes show karyotypes of extreme conservatism together with others with high chromosomal diversification. However, the cytological characterization of epigenetic modifications remains unknown for the majority of the species. In the family Labridae, the most abundant fishes on tropical reefs, the genomes of the genus Bodianus Bloch, 1790 have been characterized by the occurrence of a peculiar chromosomal region, here denominated BOD. This region is exceptionally decondensed, heterochromatic, argentophilic, GC-neutral and, in contrast to classical secondary constrictions, shows no signals of hybridization with 18S rDNA probes. In order to characterize the BOD region, the methylation pattern, the distribution of Alu and Tol2 retrotransposons and of 18S and 5S rDNA sites, respectively, were analyzed by Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) on metaphase chromosomes of two Bodianus species, B. insularis Gomon & Lubbock, 1980 and B. pulchellus (Poey, 1860). Immunolocalization of the 5-methylcytosine revealed hypermethylated chromosomal regions, dispersed along the entire length of the chromosomes of both species, while the BOD regions exhibited a hypomethylated pattern. Hypomethylation of the BOD region is associated with the precise co-location of Tol2 and Alu elements, suggesting their active participation in the regulatory epigenetic process. This evidence underscores a probable differential methylation action during the cell cycle, as well as the role of Tol2/Alu elements in functional processes of fish genomes.

Gymnotidae is a family of electric fish endemic to the Neotropics consisting of 2 genera: Electrophorus and Gymnotus. The genus Gymnotus is widely distributed and is found in all of the major Brazilian river systems. Physical and molecular mapping data for the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in this genus are still scarce, with its chromosomal location known in only 11 species. As other species of Gymnotus with 2n = 54 chromosomes from the Paraná-Paraguay basin, G. mamiraua was found to have a large number of 5S rDNA sites. Isolation and cloning of the 5S rDNA sequences from G. mamiraua identified a fragment of a transposable element similar to the Tc1/mariner transposon associated with a non-transcribed spacer. Double fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of this element and the 5S rDNA showed that they were colocalized on several chromosomes, in addition to acting as nonsyntenic markers on others. Our data show the association between these sequences and suggest that the Tc1 retrotransposon may be the agent that drives the spread of these 5S rDNA-like sequences in the G. mamiraua genome.

Sex chromosome evolution involves the accumulation of repeat sequences such as multigenic families, noncoding repetitive DNA (satellite, minisatellite, and microsatellite), and mobile elements such as transposons and retrotransposons. Most species of Characidium exhibit heteromorphic ZZ/ZW sex chromosomes; the W is characterized by an intense accumulation of repetitive DNA including dispersed satellite DNA sequences and transposable elements. The aim of this study was to analyze the distribution pattern of 18 different tandem repeats, including (GATA)n and (TTAGGG)n, in the genomes of C. zebra and C. gomesi, especially in the C. gomesi W chromosome. In the C. gomesi W chromosome, weak signals were seen for (CAA)10, (CAC)10, (CAT)10, (CGG)10, (GAC)10, and (CA)15 probes. (GA)15 and (TA)15 hybridized to the autosomes but not to the W chromosome. The (GATA)n probe hybridized to the short arms of the W chromosome as well as the (CG)15 probe. The (GATA)n repeat is known to be a protein-binding motif. GATA-binding proteins are necessary for the decondensation of heterochromatic regions that hold coding genes, especially in some heteromorphic sex chromosomes that may keep genes related to oocyte development. The (TAA)10 repeat is accumulated in the entire W chromosome, and this microsatellite accumulation is probably involved in the sex chromosome differentiation process and crossover suppression in C. gomesi. These additional data on the W chromosome DNA composition help to explain the evolution of sex chromosomes in Characidium.

The speciose neotropical genus Characidium has proven to be a good model for cytogenetic exploration. Representatives of this genus often have a conserved diploid chromosome number; some species exhibit a highly differentiated ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system, while others do not show any sex-related chromosome heteromorphism. In this study, chromosome painting using a W-specific probe and comparative chromosome mapping of repetitive sequences, including ribosomal clusters and 4 microsatellite motifs - (CA)15, (GA)15, (CG)15, and (TTA)10 -, were performed in 6 Characidium species, 5 of which possessed a heteromorphic ZW sex chromosome system. The W-specific probe showed hybridization signals on the W chromosome of all analyzed species, indicating homology among the W chromosomes. Remarkably, a single major rDNA-bearing chromosome pair was found in all species. The 18S rDNA localized to the sex chromosomes in C. lanei, C. timbuiense and C. pterostictum, while the major rDNA localized to one autosome pair in C. vidali and C. gomesi. In contrast, the number of 5S rDNA-bearing chromosomes varied. Notably, minor ribosomal clusters were identified in the W chromosome of C. vidali. Microsatellites were widely distributed across almost all chromosomes of the karyotypes, with a greater accumulation in the subtelomeric regions. However, clear differences in the abundance of each motif were detected in each species. In addition, the Z and W chromosomes showed the differential accumulation of distinct motifs. Our results revealed variability in the distribution of repetitive DNA sequences and their possible association with sex chromosome diversification in Characidium species.

The organization and mapping of multigene families can produce useful genetic markers, and its use may elucidate the mechanisms of karyotype variation and genomic organization in different groups of eukaryotes. To date, few species of Coleoptera have been analyzed using FISH for the location of multigene families. The purpose of this study was to use high-resolution chromosome mapping to establish the genomic organization of the 18S rDNA, 5S rDNA and histone H3 gene families in Lagria villosa. FISH was performed using 18S rDNA, 5S rDNA and histone H3 probes prepared via PCR labeling. Fiber-FISH for 18S and 5S rDNA indicated that both ribosomal elements are colocalized in the short arm of chromosome 4. Additionally, FISH, using the histone H3 probe, revealed that this sequence is found in only one autosomal pair and did not colocalize with rDNA. Fiber-FISH with 5S and 18S probes, used to improve the mapping resolution of these regions, showed that both genes are closely interspersed with varying amounts of both DNA classes.

Study of alterations in the concentration of ions in the plasma and of the induction of micronucleus in Piaractus mesopotamicus exposed to the herbicide atrazine The pollution of the aquatic ecosystem has been increasing in the last years, mainly due to the industrial and agricultural development. The Atrazine pesticide is an important agent pollutant and it can harm the development and reproduction of several species of fish due to its toxicity. Piaractus mesopotamicus (pacu) is one of the species thoroughly comercialized and used in fish farms. The present study analyzed possible modifications in the concentration of ions in the plasma (Na + , Cl ‐ , K + , Ca 2+ ), in the blood pH and in the micronucleus frequency in pacu erythrocytes (N = 10 for group; Wt: 160.0 ± 5 g) exposed to the Atrazine herbicide (0.1 mg/L) during 96 hours in semi-static system. Samples of blood were collected, with aid of syringes heparinized, being centrifuged later and/or made smears for subsequent analysis of the micronucleus. The obtained plasma was used for the determinations of ions in the plasma. Cytological analyses showed significant differences (p < 0.0001) in the micronucleus frequency among the control group which was exposed to the atrazine herbicide. The blood pH stayed constant, but the ions concentration in the plasma Na + and Cl ‐ was, in relation to the control, sig-nificantly reduced (p < 0.05). The tested concentration of the herbicide probably provoked disturbances in the acid-base ionic balance and it can also be considered a clastogenic and poisonous product.

This study taxonomically reviewed the specimens studied by ArtoniBertollo (1996) and assimilated species of Hypostomus into three groups according to their cytogenetic characteristics, vagility and occurrence environments.

Interspaced repetitive DNA elements and segmental duplications have been extensively analyzed in fishes through physical chromosome mapping methods, providing a better comprehension of the structure and organization of the genome of this group. In order to contribute to this scenario, a sequence integration study of different classes of repetitive DNA with high resolution physical chromosome mapping was performed in Sorubim lima. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and fiber-FISH with probes for 18S and 5S rRNA genes, TTAGGGn sequence and non-LTR retrotransposon family members Rex1, Rex3 and Rex6 showed that non-LTR elements may be dispersed in the chromosome set with relative concentration in heterochromatic regions, as shown by Rex1, or may even intercalate in 45S rDNA and the telomeric sequence, as found for Rex3 and Rex6. These results reinforce the presence of preferential regions of retroelement accumulation and contribute to a better understanding of the genomic organization of some repetitive DNA classes in fishes.

The Xy(p) sex determination mechanism is the system most frequent and ancestral to Coleoptera. Moreover, the presence of argyrophilous material associated with the sex bivalent is described as being responsible for the maintenance and association of these chromosomes. There are no karyotype data available regarding the genus Lagria and no consensus in the literature regarding the argyrophilous material present in the lumen of sex bivalent. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the mechanism of sex chromosome bivalent association in Lagria villosa by analyzing the argyrophilous nature of the material present in the Xy(p) lumen. It was also intended to characterize L. villosa cytogenetically. The analysis of meiotic cells showed 2n = 18 = 16+Xy(p) for males and 2n = 18 = 16+XX in females and the meiotic formula was 2n = 8(II)+Xy(p). The C-banding showed blocks of pericentromeric heterochromatin in all chromosomes except in the y(p) chromosome. In these regions, the use of fluorochromes revealed the presence of heterochromatin containing GC rich DNA sequences. The study of synaptonemal complex showed a gradual increase in the electron-density of the axial elements of the sex chromosomes and their association with strongly electron-dense material. The pepsin pretreatment revealed that the material impregnated by silver is protein.

Steindachneridion melanodermatum is a large Brazilian catfish, highly prized for sport fishing and for its meat. Specimens of this species, both caught in nature from Iguacu River and F(1) fish born in captivity, were analyzed with regard to patterns of RAPD molecular markers. Genetic similarity ranged from 0.57 to 0.95; two groups were determined for the wild specimens. The results suggest different genetic lineages in sympatry in nature. Heterozygosity and percentage of polymorphic loci were 0.31 and 79% and 0.23 and 62%, respectively, for the two populations of wild specimens and 0.26 and 66%, respectively, for those born in captivity.

Neotropical fishes have a low rate of chromosome differentiation between sexes. The present study characterizes the first meiotic analysis of sex chromosomes in the order Gymnotiformes. Gymnotus pantanal - females had 40 chromosomes (14m/sm, 26st/a) and males had 39 chromosomes (15m/sm, 24st/a), with a fundamental number of 54 - showed a multiple sexual determination chromosome system of the type X(1)X(1)X(2)X(2)/X(1)X(2)Y. The heterochromatin is restricted to centromeres of all chromosomes of the karyotype. The meiotic behavior of sex chromosomes involved in this system in males is from a trivalent totally pared in the pachytene stage, with a high degree of similarity. The cells of metaphase II exhibit 19 and 20 chromosomes, normal disjunction of sex chromosomes and the formation of balanced gametes with 18 + Y and 18 + X(1)X(2) chromosomes, respectively. The small amount of heterochromatin and repetitive DNA involved in this system and the high degree of chromosome similarity indicated a recent origin of the X(1)X(1)X(2)X(2)/X(1)X(2)Y system in G. pantanal and suggests the existence of a simple ancestral system with morphologically undifferentiated chromosomes.

This work presents chromosome homology maps between Mus musculus (MMU) and 2 South American rodent species from the Cricetidae group: Necromys lasiurus (NLA, 2n = 34) and Thaptomys nigrita (TNI, 2n = 52), established by ZOO-FISH using mouse chromosome-specific painting probes. Extending previous molecular cytogenetic studies in Neotropical rodents, the purpose of this work was to delineate evolutionary chromosomal rearrangements in Cricetidae rodents and to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships among the Akodontini species. Our phylogenetic reconstruction by maximum parsimony analysis of chromosomal characters confirmed one consistent clade of all Neotropical rodents studied so far. In both species analyzed here, we observed the syntenic association of chromosome segments homologous to MMU 8/13, suggesting that this chromosome form is a synapomorphic trait exclusive to Neotropical rodents. Further, the previously described Akodontini-specific syntenic associations MMU 3/18 and MMU 6/12 were observed in N.lasiurus but not in T. nigrita, although the latter species is considered a member of the Akodontini tribe by some authors. Finally, and in agreement with this finding, N.lasiurus and Akodon serrensis share the derived fission of MMU 13, which places them as basal sister clades within Akodontini.

Physical mapping of 5S rDNA in 2 species of knifefishes, Gymnotuspantanal and G. paraguensis (Gymnotiformes), was performed using fluorescence in situ hybridization with a 5S rDNA probe. The 5S rDNA PCR product from the genomes of both species was also sequenced and aligned to determine non-transcribed spacer sequences (NTS). Both species under study had different patterns of 5S rDNA gene cluster distribution. While in the karyotype of G. pantanal two 5S rDNA-bearing pairs were observed, the karyotype of G. paraguensis possessed as many as 19 such pairs. Such multiplication of 5S rDNA gene clusters might be caused by the involvement of transposable elements because the NTS of G. paraguensis was 400 bp long with high identity (90%) with a mobile transposable element called Tc1-like transposon, described from the cyprinid fish Labeo rohita.

Com o crescimento da população obesa e com sobrepeso, o IMC (Índice de Massa Corporal) passou a ser uma análise amplamente empregada para resultados e classificações de composição corporal dada a simplicidade e exeqüibilidade do método. Erros inerentes ao IMC fomentam a utilização de outras ferramentas para a tomada de parâmetros corporais de relevância para a clínica assim como a porcentagem de gordura corporal. No pressente estudo realizamos uma comparação de reprodutibilidade dos resultados obtidos para o percentual de gordura corporal pelo método de impedância bioelétrica e pelo IMC corrigido pela Equação de Deurenberg. Os testes foram aplicados em 25 indivíduos (5 homens e 20 mulheres) com idade entre 17 a 75 anos. Os resultados obtidos apontam uma excelente correspondência e reprodutibilidade entre os métodos utilizados (r = 0,906). Estes dados iniciais sugerem a possibilidade de utilização destes índices para o diagnóstico de gordura corporal em percentagem, com a possibilidade de aplicação clínica.

The chromosomes of an undescribed species of the genus Apareiodon (Characiformes, Parodontidae) from the Verde River, a headwater affluent of the Tibagi River (Paraná State, Brazil), were investigated using conventional Giemsa and Ag stainings, C-banding, CMA(3) fluorescence and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) using 18S and 5S rDNA probes. The diploid chromosome number was 2n = 54, with the karyotype composed of 48 meta/submetacentric and six subtelocentric chromosomes in males, and 47 meta/submetacentric + seven subtelocentric chromosomes in females. The difference is hypothesized to be due to a ZZ/ZW heteromorphic sex chromosome system, a cytotaxonomic characteristic previously observed only in some species of the genus Parodon (family Parodontidae). The presence of similar and/or identical heteromorphic sex chromosome systems might suggest that species of the genera Parodon and Apareiodon bearing ZZ/ZW heteromorphic sex chromosomes likely constitute a monophyletic group, a hypothesis to be tested by a robust phylogeny of the family.

The distribution of constitutive heterochromatin has showed a relevant association with karyotypic evolution in several animal groups. In the present paper, a polymorphic condition for a heterochromatic segment overlapping a nucleolar organizer region in the fish species Hoplias malabaricus from the Iguaçu river, Southern Brazil, was analyzed. In accordance with previous studies, this population belongs to cytotype A, showing 2n = 42 meta-submetacentric chromosomes, without differentiation of sex chromosomes. Three phenotypes were established with regard to the heterochromatin located near the centromere of chromosome pair 16, and named rr for homomorphic reduced bands, dd for homomorphic duplicated bands and rd for the heteromorphic condition. The rr phenotype was predominant (70.6%), followed by rd (23.5%) and dd (5.9%), showing Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in the population. In addition, the 18S rDNA sites also show the polymorphic condition. A possible role for this NOR/heterochromatin segment in the evolution of sex chromosomes in other H. malabaricus cytotypes is discussed.

Triportheus is a neotropical freshwater Characidae fish that has a well-differentiated ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system. The W chromosome of this genus contains a large amount of heterochromatin and is smaller than the Z chromosome. This contrasts with other ZW fish systems where the W chromosome is larger in size due to increased heterochromatin. All species of Triportheus that have been studied cytologically (about 50% of the known species for this genus, from some of the major South American hydrographic basins) share this sex chromosome system, indicating a probable synapomorphic condition not present in other genera of the large Characidae family. However, while the Z chromosome appears to be largely conserved, the W chromosome shows a differential evolution with morphological differentiations not only among species, but also among populations from the same hydrographic basin, and with some species presenting a greater homology between the W and the Z chromosomes than others.

Some Hypostomus species were studied concerning the features of the karyotype structure and the constitutive heterochromatin. The karyotype of Hypostomus sp. F from the São Francisco river (Minas Gerais state, Brazil) is now described for the first time. A diversity in the diploid number, ranging from 2n = 68 to 2n = 80, as well as in the karyotype formulae, is evident in this fish group. Two types of heterochromatin, GC- and AT-rich, could be identified with the use of base-specific fluorochromes. In some species heterochromatic bands are mainly located on the centromeric and telomeric chromosomal regions, while in other species they are also observed at interstitial locations. Hypotheses concerning this heterochromatic distribution in Hypostomus karyotypes are discussed. A case of supernumerary heterochromatic segment and a centric fusion appear to be related with two variant karyotypic formulae observed among specimens from the Mogi-Guaçu and São Francisco rivers, respectively. The available data permit us to characterize a divergent karyotypic evolution among the Hypostomus species already analyzed, both at the macro- and microstructural levels, that is, their general karyotype organization and particular features related to chromosomal banding or staining, respectively.