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Breast cancer remains a major global health challenge, demanding better diagnostic tools. Traditional methods like mammography have limitations, highlighting the need for specific, non-invasive approaches. Protein biomarkers offer a promising avenue for early and accurate detection, potentially leading to improved patient outcomes and personalized treatment. This review explores key protein biomarkers, including Estrogen Receptor (ER), Progesterone Receptor (PR), Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER-2), and Cancer Antigen 27.29(CA27.29), focusing on the proteomic methodologies used in their discovery and validation. However, challenges exist, such as variability in biomarker expression and limitations in abundance, stability, and specificity, which hinder clinical use. The review discusses innovative strategies to overcome these challenges, emphasizing the importance of translating biomarker research into practical applications for personalized medicine in breast cancer diagnosis and therapy. This exploration contributes to the evolving field of breast cancer diagnostics, paving the way for future discoveries and improved patient care.

Introduction: Olax subscorpioidea is a medicinal plant that Africans use to treat numerous ailments, including cancer. This research examines the antioxidant, anticancer, and in-silico properties of ethyl acetate fraction of Olax subscorpioidea’s (OSEA) on 7,12-Dimethylbenz(α) anthracene (DMBA)-induced cell proliferation in female rats. Methods: Forty female Sprague Dawley rats averaging 110 ± 20 g were induced proliferation with DMBA (80 mg/kg) and treated with ethyl acetate fraction (250 mg/kg BW) of O. subscorpioidea or tamoxifen (6.6 mg/kg BW) before and after induction. The trial lasted 22 weeks. In-vivo antioxidant parameters such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), and reduced glutathione (GSH) were examined. Likewise, carcinoma antigen marker (CA153), and DNA methyltransferase 3-like (DNMT3L) activity were measured. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) detected the bioactive compounds, and molecular docking studies predicted the mechanism of action of OSEA against DNA methyltransferase. Results: Treatment with OSEA significantly increased the SOD activity, enhanced GSH levels, and lowered the levels of MDA, CA-153, and DNMT3L in DMBA-exposed rats. The GC-MS analysis of OSEA revealed the presence of 40 bioactive compounds. The molecular docking revealed that 4-cyclopentene-1,3-dione (-6.407 kcal/mol), 2-(2-hydroxyethylthio) (-4.926 kcal/mol) and 3,4,5,6-tetrahydrophthalic anhydride (-6.16 kcal/mol) had the lowest binding energies against DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B, respectively. 2-(2-hydroxyethylthio) was the least toxic. The molecular dynamic simulation revealed that the interaction between DNMT3A and 2-(2-hydroxyethylthio) propionic was stable to an extent. : The in-silico and biochemical analysis of the ethyl acetate fraction of O. subscorpioidea showed that it can protect against lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress and may be a potent source of drug that serves as an effective therapeutic in the future.

N-Nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) is a nitrosamine derivative with carcinogenic and mutagenic properties which can be found in tobacco smoke, meat and various food products. This study examined the antioxidant and hepatoprotective potential of Cajanus cajan (C. cajan) with respect to hepatotoxicity in male Wistar rats. Administration of NDEA induced hepatotoxicity at 200 mg/kg while C. cajan was administered (200, 400 and 800 mg/kg) for 28 days. NDEA-induced hepatotoxicity significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased reduced glutathione (GSH), albumin (ALB), glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). C. cajan-treated groups were seen to have significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased ALT and AST and significantly (p < 0.05) increased ALB, GST, GSH, SOD and CAT. The NDEA-treated group also showed a marginal increase in body weight and a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in liver weight. The C. cajan treated groups showed a significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase and decrease respectively in body and liver weights. Histopathological changes also substantiated NDEA-induced hepatotoxicity and the hepatoprotective effect of C. cajan on the liver. The results indicate that C. cajan has the potential to ameliorate NDEA-induced hepatotoxicity.