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Problem. When studying the work processes that occur in pneumatic or electropneumatic circuit of brake systems or pneumatic suspension systems of a wheeled vehicle, researchers use various expenditure functions on the basis of which they draw scientific conclusions and obtain scientific results, while they do not think about the fact that the functions are credible or not. The choice of the expenditure function, for researchers, is an actual scientific task, which should have a scientific justification and should not have a formalized nature. Goal. The aim of the study is to compare the expenditure functions to determine the nature of their influence on the dynamic processes that occur during filling or emptying links of the pneumatic circuit. Methodology. The approaches adopted in the work to solving the set goal are based on the analysis of the results of simulation modeling of work processes in pneumatic circuit. Results. A comparison of the research results obtained in this work with each other and with the results obtained in experimental studies, allowed us to establish the peculiarities of the course of work processes in the pneumatic circuit links when using different expenditure functions. It was established that, depending on the choice of the expenditure function, with the same initial conditions of simulation modeling, the results of the study can differ by up to 40%. Originality. The use of a universal basis of simulation modeling, based on various expenditure functions, enabled to establish that it is possible to propose new functions that better describe the working process in a pneumatic circuit than the known ones. Practical value. The obtained results can be recommended in the practice of simulation modeling of work processes in pneumatic or electropneumatic circuits of brake systems and systems of pneumatic suspension of wheeled vehicles., Проблема. Під час дослідження робочих процесів, які відбуваються в пневматичних або електропневматичних приводах гальмових систем або систем пневматичного підресорювання кузова колісного транспортного засобу, дослідники використовують різні витратні функції на основі яких роблять наукові висновки й отримують наукові результати, при цьому не замислюючись над тим, чи достовірні залежності вони використовують в своїх дослідженнях. Вибір витратної функції, для дослідників, є актуальним науковим завданням, яке повинно мати наукове обґрунтування і не повинно мати формалізований характер. Мета. Метою дослідження є порівняння витратних функцій для визначення характеру їх впливу на динамічні процеси, що відбуваються під час наповнення або спорожнення ДЄ-ланок пневматичного приводу. Методологія. Прийняті в роботі підходи до вирішення поставленої мети базуються на аналізі результатів імітаційного моделювання робочих процесів в пневматичних приводах. Результати. Співставлення результатів дослідження отриманих в даній роботі один до одного, а також до результатів отриманих в наслідок експериментальних досліджень дозволили встановити особливості перебігу робочих процесів в ланках привода при використанні різних витратних функцій. Встановлено, що в залежності від вибору витратної функції, при однакових початкових умов імітаційного моделювання, результати дослідження можуть відрізнятися до 40%, що може вплинути на висновки, зроблені науковцями, при аналізі отриманих результатів імітаційного моделювання. Оригінальність. Використання універсальної основи імітаційного моделювання, що базується на різних витратних функціях, дозволив встановити, що можна запропонувати нові функції, що краще описують робочий процес в пневматичному приводі аніж відомі. Порівняння результатів імітаційного моделювання між собою дозволив визначити динамічність функцій та їх вплив на перебіг робочих процесів в ланках пневматичного привода. Практичне значення. Отримані результати можуть бути рекомендовані в практиках імітаційного моделювання робочих процесів в пневматичних або електропневматичних приводів гальмових системи та систем пневматичного підресорювання кузова колісних транспортних засобів.

Based on household expenditure survey data for Erbil governorate in year (2012), the food expenditure function have been estimated via applying (OLS) method. The study sample constitutes of (1933) households by using Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model. Then, expenditure and price elasticity of food demand have been derived from the estimated model after subjecting to traditional criteria. Overall the results were satisfactory, especially the compatibility of the sizes and signs of the elasticity, with theoretical and previous expectations. So, the results showed that there are another non-economic factors exists which effect on the food expenditure significantly like household size and its composition. Finally, the results have been used to predict the future demand on food. At the end of the study numbers of proposals and conclusions have been outlined, based on the estimated results.

Charter schools can influence a school district's costs by reducing economies of scale and by changing the share of high cost students a district serves, but might also increase the district's efficiency through competition. Utilizing data for New York State school districts from 1998/99 to 2013/14, we estimate difference-in-differences models to assess the effect of charter schools on enrollment and student composition. Then, we estimate an expenditure function, using data prior to the charter school program, to measure the costs associated with reaching a given performance standard for students in various need categories and different enrollments. Next, using the entire data set, we run a second expenditure function to determine changes in efficiency associated with charter school entry. We find that charter schools increase the cost of providing education, and that these cost increases are larger than short-run efficiency gains, but are offset by efficiency gains in the long term.

This chapter is a standard chapter on mainstream consumer theory and demand theory, with the addition of an introduction to the general equilibrium of pure exchange which allows illustrating the importance of continuity of consumer demand functions for the existence of general equilibrium. It notices the different interpretation of consumption demand depending on whether one is determining a long-period or a short-period or an intertemporal equilibrium. It covers the standard notions of consumer theory, including indirect utility, expenditure function, elasticity of substitution, CES utility functions, Roy’s Identity, Shephard’s Lemma, Slutsky equation, substitution and income effects, saving decision, duality, Hicksian aggregability of goods, equivalent variation, compensating variation, consumer surplus, revealed preference. The Kuhn-Tucker theorem is introduced to study utility maximization. On labour supply the chapter argues that the standard upward-sloping shape is unrealistic, and proposes a more realistic shape with a discontinuity at the subsistence level. The Gorman consumer aggregability conditions are explained but the conditions for the existence of a general-equilibrium representatitve consumer are shown to be different from the Gorman conditions. The weak axiom of revealed preference is shown not to extend to market demand functions if there isn’t a representative consumer.

The article dwells upon investigation into the issue of providing the adequate financing level of firms’ operational period attained by creation and employment of the suggested economic mathematical toolkit. Its nucleus is the firm’s special stabilizing surplus fund operated with the set of the following models: model for the fund’s elaboration, its adaptive mathematical model and algorithmic model for the fund’s management (implemented via designed computer program). The mathematical model of special stabilizing surplus fund, as well as calculation of its amount for every next industrial period is being set forward in the paper. Both indispensable and sufficient condition of special stabilizing surplus fund’s organization is being enunciated. In order to estimate the volume of special stabilizing surplus fund, an analytical approach of «temporary money cost» is applied to expenditure function analysis. Thereby, we suggest the following approach to handling the issue of cash flow leveling within each step of calculation. Furthermore, the author suggests an approach brought forward in order to estimate the effect of resorting to special stabilizing surplus fund in the course of either one or several industrial periods. Purpose of the article is implementation of such a short-term prognostication technique as proportional predictive method. The methods applied include: proportional predictive method, dialectical method, observation method, critical and contrastive analysis and synthesis method. The decision was made to repudiate the approach implying creation of econometric models of time series dynamics for the present research due to the lack of statistical data. This article also aims at improving evaluation methods of financial state of a certain company at a definite period of time. The research held is based on the statistical data on business activities over the year of 2020 provided by the hotel «Dnister» (Ukraine).

This paper uses a highly disaggregated demand system to estimate the degree of substitutability among monetary assets and to address the issue of optimal monetary aggregation in the United States. We address the problems of dimensionality and nonlinearity, estimating a very detailed monetary asset demand system encompassing the full range of assets based on the locally flexible normalized quadratic expenditure function. We treat the concavity property as a maintained hypothesis and provide evidence consistent with neoclassical microeconomic theory. Statistical tests reject the appropriateness of the aggregation assumptions for all the money measures published by the Federal Reserve as well as for a large number of groupings suggested by earlier studies. This supports and reinforces Barnett's (2016) assertion that we should employ the broadest M4 monetary aggregate published by the Center for Financial Stability.

Literature on regional growth suggests that divergences in infrastructure is a major factor behind the wide and persistent imbalances in regional growth in India. Using a state infrastructure expenditure function, possible factors that determine infrastructure expenditure and its role in the regional imbalance in infrastructure creation across 14 major Indian states are examined in the present paper. The study indicates that such factors as lagged expenditure, resource mobilization and per capita income may cause varying amounts of infrastructure expenditure across states. It also indicates that spending by the infrastructure-deficit states, political stability and positive spatial dependence in infrastructure expenditure have a balancing effect on infrastructure creation across regions. Those results suggest the need to do the following: (a) harness the favourable factors influencing public expenditure that include improving the financial capacity of the infrastructure-deficit states; (b) strengthen the positive spatial dependence among states through the creation of interstate infrastructure networks, such as railways and national highways; and (c) enable a conducive investment climate, which could boost competition among states for improved infrastructure creation.

In the present scenario, it is the demand of each and every citizen of a smart city to get a cheaper and sustainable service. The costly and environment unfriendly fossil fuel, have shifted attention towards electric vehicles (EV). But to get an appropriate charging station in context to optimal pricing, location and happiness factor are a major concern. In this paper, energy trading with optimal pricing scheme along with the happiness factor for EV owners and charging stations (CS) has been proposed. This scheme suggests the best possible charging station to an EV owner in terms of minimum price with the nearest location by using expenditure function. The happiness factor of EV is calculated which represent his satisfaction level with energy trading deal. The proposed scheme also consider the happiness factor of charging station on the basis of optimum utilization of its resources. The pricing scheme appropriately considers the time of charging, occupancy at the CS, amount of charging required, location of charging station and type of EV. The objective function develop is solved using an optimization model based on fuzzy logic.

In order to explore the directions for future tax reform for the United States, we analyze the efficiency costs of taxation for various parts of the tax system and estimate the potential welfare gains from tax reform proposals. We employ the dynamic general equilibrium model that Dale Jorgenson and I developed. To estimate efficiency costs of taxation, we replace parts of the US tax system with hypothetical lump-sum tax and measure the welfare loss due to the taxes replaced by the lump-sum tax. To evaluate the welfare gains from tax reform proposals, we compare the growth paths of the economy under the alternative tax policies with the path under the reference policy. Intertemporal expenditure function is used to estimate equivalent variation measure of welfare effects.

Most existing micro-level empirical analyses of corruption rely on administrative records, special-purpose surveys or field experiments, which can be difficult or very costly to obtain in some situations. In this paper, we apply an expenditure-based method of quantifying the extent of corruption in a particular country using household survey data. This method utilizes discrepancies between consumption and reported income to measure corruption. Another contribution of this paper is that it provides the first objective estimate of the extent of corruption in China. We use a quadratic clothing expenditure function to estimate the extent of corruption in China in 2002.

In this chapter, we measure the extent to which the suppression of urban sprawl reduces the marginal cost of providing local public services in Japan by estimating the local expenditure function. We expand on existing estimates in Japan by establishing a theoretical framework to economically interpret the estimated parameters. Specifically, we first derive the estimated local expenditure function by combining the supply and demand functions for local public services. Second, we implement the estimation using cross-sectional data from 2008 for 1085 Japanese municipalities. Overall, urban sprawl growth has a positive and significant impact on local expenditure, with the parameters for the relationship estimated to be between 0.011 and 0.055. This statistically significant and theoretically consistent outcome suggests that, in Japan, a one percent decrease in urban sprawl can reduce the marginal cost of providing local public services by 0.053–0.113%. These results contribute to the quantitative evaluation of compact cities.

The present paper has two objectives, both of which are purely pedagogical in nature. The first is to propose a competitor to the conceptual “workhorse” of economics, the Cobb–Douglas functional form. Our competitor is a special case of the square-root functional form. The second objective is to employ our special case as the foundation for a much-needed overview or roadmap to a large expanse of producer and consumer theory.

The standard approach to demand specification is to either assume a functional form for the utility function and maximise it subject to the individual’s budget constraint or minimise the individual’s cost or expenditure function subject to the utility set at a prespecified value.