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Understanding motivational beliefs such as expectancy and value that shape students' persistence and decision to pursue a STEM career, obtaining valid and reliable measures for these dimensions, and developing strategies using this data are critically important to ensure students' persistence in the STEM pipeline. Therefore, this study aims to develop a tool to measure middle school students' STEM motivations within the expectancy and value concepts framework. The trial version of the scale was conducted on 967 middle school students in the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grades. The study group was randomly divided into two groups. EFA was conducted on the data obtained from the first sub-group (n=479), and CFA was performed using the data obtained from the second sub-group (n=488). The results of a series of CFA performed to test three different models developed based on the theoretical structure, Model 3, the second-order single-factor structure composed of 5 sub-dimensions was found to be a successful model. This measurement tool would allow determining motivational beliefs within the expectancy-value concept that can be targeted to encourage students' interest in STEM fields, as well as help design interventions for these structure(s), and evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) science practices secondary science teachers considered as most important, to determine what type of value teachers ascribed to those practices, and to examine any correlations between teachers' perceived importance of the practices and their self-reported implementation. An electronic survey was used to collect multiple forms of data from 128 secondary science teachers. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, average ranking scores, and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Qualitative data was analyzed through qualitative content analysis using Wigfield and Eccles' (2000) Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) as an analytic framework. Our findings indicate that: (1) teachers ranked asking questions as the most important science practice, and mathematics and computational thinking as least important; (2) teachers most frequently attached attainment value to the usefulness of the practices; and (3) the correlations between teachers' rankings of the practices and their self-reported implementation were mixed. The rank-implementation mismatches can be interpreted as an outcome of teachers' misconceptions about some of the science practices. This study highlights the need for teacher education initiatives that promote teachers' implementation of and long-term utility value of proficiency with all eight of the science practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the relevance of the Expectancy Value Theory in the context of higher education, the aim of this study was to develop and validate an instrument to measure the constructs within this framework at the higher education level. Undergraduate students (n = 565) from one of the largest private higher education institutions in Singapore were surveyed online using two versions (a 20-item and a 16-item version) of the Expectancies and Values in Higher Education Instrument (EVHEI). Exploratory factor analyses using a subsample of the cohort yielded two alternative versions of the instrument (a five-factor and a four-factor version). Both were subsequently validated using confirmatory factor analysis on data from the other subsample. The study results suggest that the EVHEI holds considerable promise for measuring motivationrelated constructs at the higher education level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging research is documenting the critical role of a family's resources, beliefs, and behaviours related to science as factors that influence the career choices of youth. This exploratory study examined elementary aged youth participants' perceptions of the value of science in their future after participating in a year-long, museum-based, family science program. Treatment (n = 41) and control (n = 40) participants completed a pre- and post-survey designed to measure Science Achievement Value (related to self-efficacy and self-concept), Science Experiences, Future Science Task Value (perceived usefulness of science in the future), and Perceived Family Science Achievement Value (related to parents' beliefs about science). There were no statistically significant differences in survey responses pre to post for the control group. However, the results showed that participation in the program may have valuable impacts on the Science Achievement Value and Science Experiences of the youth participants in the treatment group. Additionally, the program sustained the treatment group's levels of Future Science Task Value whereas the control group saw a decline. These results suggest family science programs have the potential to positively influence the Science Achievement Value and Science Experiences of youth, factors that are associated with career aspirations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In the context of digital transformation of education, online training is one of the important ways for teachers to improve their professionalism and promote the quality of education. However, studies have shown that teachers' online training suffers from insufficient learning engagement and other problems, so it is crucial to explore the factors influencing teachers' learning engagement and their mechanisms of action in the context of online training. Methods: Taking 589 teachers who participated in online training as the research subjects, the study used the methods of survey research and statistical analysis to explore the influence mechanism of teachers' academic emotions and motivational beliefs on online learning engagement based on the dual perspectives of control value theory and expectancy-value theory. Results: The study found that: (1) positive-high arousal academic emotions, training self-efficacy, and training task value significantly and positively predicted online learning engagement, respectively; (2) negative-high arousal and negative-low arousal academic emotions significantly and negatively predicted online learning engagement; (3) training self-efficacy and training task value mediated the relationship between positive-high arousal academic emotions, negative-high arousal academic emotions, negative-low arousal academic emotions and online learning engagement, respectively. Discussion: The study concluded that by creating an immersive learning environment based on the educational meta universe, personalized and precise training based on big data and adaptive technologies, and establishing a multidimensional and three-dimensional online learning support service system, which can effectively improve teachers' online learning engagement and enhance their online training quality and effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Co-curricular activities are often touted as valuable STEM learning opportunities in higher education settings. Particularly in engineering, industry encourage and seek students with co-curricular experiences. However, many engineering undergraduates do not regularly participate in those experiences. Some researchers have suggested that the rigors of the curriculum leave little time for co-curriculars. Yet, little research has empirically examined the reality of the undergraduate students’ involvement in co-curriculars. Thus, as an initial study, we situated our study in a large public university to explore students’ motivations for co-curriculars. In this paper we report on our efforts to understand student perceptions about the value and costs of that involvement. We considered how undergraduate engineering students used their time and what motivated them to engage (or not) in co-curriculars using Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT). Students’ motivation was investigated with a quantitative research methodology and complemented by interview data. Results Results of our motivation survey show that students who participated in co-curriculars perceived less cost than those who never participated. We also found that the achievement values of co-curriculars does not necessarily motivate student involvement. Interview data were used to further interpret quantitative data results. Conclusions In the context of study findings and existent literature, we discuss several implications for future research and practice. First, we argue for a more granular investigation of student time use and its impact on co-curricular participation. Second, despite the potential for high impact outcomes, students who have never participated perceived high cost for co-curricular engagement. Those perceptions may aggravate inequitable engagement of student populations, including historically marginalized populations in the STEM field. Third, students do not necessarily associate co-curricular experiences with the types of achievement values and learning that institutions, alumni, and industry might consider most important. Thus, to build and support co-curricular programs that provide the holistic educational experiences and learning that are anticipated, research that supports design of co-curricular programs and policies to improve engagement and persistence in those programs for all students is necessary.

Online apparel renting has become a popular type of consumption. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the sharing economy, including online renting. This cross-sectional study examined the effects of expectancy values on intention towards online apparel rental during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and investigated the moderating role of personal traits of fashion leadership. A total of 431 valid samples from college students in the US were collected. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to test the hypothesized relationships, and moderation analysis was performed to test the moderating effects of fashion leadership. The results indicated that expectancy values affecting consumer intention toward online apparel renting varied during and post-pandemic. The results also indicated that fashion leadership moderated the links between relative advantage and intention to rent apparel online during the pandemic, while it moderated the relationships between compatibility and psychological ownership and intention toward online apparel rental after the pandemic. This study sheds light on the expectancy values that shape consumers' intentions to rent apparel online, considering moderating effects of fashion leadership from which strategic marketing and communication plans could be developed to enhance consumer experience and engagement and expand the online apparel rental market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Co-curricular activities are often touted as valuable STEM learning opportunities in higher education settings. Particularly in engineering, industry encourage and seek students with co-curricular experiences. However, many engineering undergraduates do not regularly participate in those experiences. Some researchers have suggested that the rigors of the curriculum leave little time for co-curriculars. Yet, little research has empirically examined the reality of the undergraduate students' involvement in co-curriculars. Thus, as an initial study, we situated our study in a large public university to explore students' motivations for co-curriculars. In this paper we report on our efforts to understand student perceptions about the value and costs of that involvement. We considered how undergraduate engineering students used their time and what motivated them to engage (or not) in co-curriculars using Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT). Students' motivation was investigated with a quantitative research methodology and complemented by interview data. Results: Results of our motivation survey show that students who participated in co-curriculars perceived less cost than those who never participated. We also found that the achievement values of co-curriculars does not necessarily motivate student involvement. Interview data were used to further interpret quantitative data results. Conclusions: In the context of study findings and existent literature, we discuss several implications for future research and practice. First, we argue for a more granular investigation of student time use and its impact on co-curricular participation. Second, despite the potential for high impact outcomes, students who have never participated perceived high cost for co-curricular engagement. Those perceptions may aggravate inequitable engagement of student populations, including historically marginalized populations in the STEM field. Third, students do not necessarily associate co-curricular experiences with the types of achievement values and learning that institutions, alumni, and industry might consider most important. Thus, to build and support co-curricular programs that provide the holistic educational experiences and learning that are anticipated, research that supports design of co-curricular programs and policies to improve engagement and persistence in those programs for all students is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The labor market is strongly gender segregated with few women working in the tech sector (e.g., IT) and few men working in the care sector (e.g., nursing). We tested the hypothesis that middle school students strongly associate technology with men and caregiving with women in a Swedish context (i.e., a country that scores high in gender equality indices), and that these gender stereotypes for tech relate to girls' lower interest in tech-focused education. We measured technology/caregiving gender stereotypes with implicit (the Implicit Association Test) and explicit (self-report) measures in a sample of middle school students (n = 873). The results supported the main hypotheses, and corroborate Eccles's expectancy value theory, indicating that the endorsement of implicit gender stereotypes may serve as barriers to pursuing masculine-typed career paths for women. Further, a sample of middle school teachers (n = 86) showed stronger implicit gender stereotypes than the students. Unexpectedly, middle school girls with a foreign background showed no implicit gender stereotypes, which we discuss in relation to the gender-equality paradox. These findings suggest that to fulfill the recruitment needs of an increasingly digitalized world, the tech-industry and other stakeholders should put effort into counteracting the stereotype that technology is for men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a popular tenant underpinning paediatric health service provision, the ability of health professionals to achieve Family-Centred Care (FCC) is often questioned. A major factor has been the judgmental attitudes and behaviour of health professionals. According to expectancy-value theory, individuals' behavioural decisions are based on their attitudes and beliefs. In this sense, this study assessed the hypothesis: when necessity beliefs (beliefs and attitudes) rise, the actual implementation of FCC components (behavioural decisions) will improve. Using a correlation design, the study measured staff perceived self-reported implementation of FCC in their practice and their necessity beliefs of its core components using a modified questionnaire. Outcomes of 65 questionnaires revealed an overall mean of self reported implementation of 2.37/5.0 (SD = 0.57) and an overall mean of necessity beliefs of 3.06/5.0 (SD = 1.04). A significant moderate correlation (Spearman's rho (64) = −0.4, p < 0.001) indicated that professionals better practiced FCC components they favourably perceived necessary. It is recommended that policymakers should focus on changing attitudes of professionals towards FCC elements. The outcomes suggest that education that positively influences the attitudes and beliefs of health professionals may facilitate the involvement of families, and subsequently, better health outcomes for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Use of modeling as a learning strategy in introductory science courses could serve to support the persistence of all students, including those who identify with a traditionally underrepresented ethnic minority (URM). If students find inherent value in working on modeling-type problems then this authentic practice would aid in transforming personal interest into longer-term career-related beliefs, improving persistence. Yet research supporting this conjecture is negligible. Using Expectancy Value Theory, we compared the motivational beliefs of first-year engineering majors for different chemistry problem types and described a predictive model for modeling-type problems. We hypothesized that students' task value for different problem types would be influenced by gender, previous experience, and URM status and that previous or ongoing experiences would serve as a precursor for positive value judgments. The research design involved a correlational, single-case method. Data were analyzed using a mixed model analysis of variance and multiple linear regression. Overall, participants found modeling-type problems interesting and useful. However, our regression model revealed that URM status was a significant negative predictor of task value where these students were uninterested in modeling-type problems. However, an experience with a special modeling laboratory course completely changed the interest of URM students, suggesting the potential for modeling as an equitable instructional strategy for building persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Undergraduates often report problematic perceptions of low value and high cost in their initial science courses. These beliefs often predict poor performance and retention, and also strengthen over time. Few studies have examined how profiles of value and cost beliefs emerge, and fewer track students' transitions across profiles over a course and their implications for learning outcomes. We observed undergraduates' value and cost perceptions for a science course at the beginning, middle, and end of a semester; fit latent profiles and latent transitions; and examined both how students' demographics predicted profile membership and transition membership, and how such membership predicted achievement and intentions to continue in one's major. Value-oriented, cost-oriented, and moderately-motivated profiles consistently emerged across time points, and 32% of students transitioned across them within the semester. Trends included stable, upward (with rising value to cost balance), downward, and fluctuating perceptions. Demographic characteristics predicted profile membership and transition likelihood. Stable value-oriented and upward transition profiles outperformed stable cost-oriented and downward transition profiles. Members of stable and increasingly cost-oriented profiles expressed stronger intentions to leave their STEM programs. Findings align to expectancy-value theory and indicate that initial and periodic surveying may be important to monitor perceptions known to impact achievement and retention. Value and cost interventions may be useful to encourage perceptions and transitions associated with positive outcomes. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Students' perceptions of the value and costs of their course work are known to predict their achievement and influence their intention to abandon their pursuit of a STEM degree. Students' motivations are also known to change over time. We examined undergraduate science learners' motivations at the beginning, middle, and end of the semester, then established three initial profiles (moderately motivated, cost-oriented, value-oriented) and students' alignment to them at each time point. Students (32%) transitioned in ways we classified as toward stronger value, toward stronger cost, or fluctuating over time. Women, older students, and those from racial groups underrepresented in STEM tended to be value oriented, and students who stably endorsed or transitioned into this profile performed better in the course and expressed the least interest in leaving their major. The opposite was true for those in cost-oriented profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Situated Expectancy Value Theory was used to investigate educators' perceptions of student interest, curiosity, confusion, and frustration. • Educators held high expectations for being able to support all emotions. • Positive emotions were more valued than negative ones. • Educators tended to push back against the idea that supporting emotions has a cost. Students' emotions impact their learning and motivation. Yet, little is known about how educators perceive the role of student emotions during learning. In this mixed-methods study, we used Situated Expectancy Value Theory to investigate educators' perceptions of student emotions during learning. Educators, primarily teachers, (N = 188) completed a survey about one of the following randomly assigned emotions: curiosity, interest, confusion, or frustration. The survey included questions about perceived expectancies, values, and costs associated with supporting student emotions during learning. Open-ended questions probing educators' explanations of their responses were coded to understand factors associated with expectancy, value, and cost perceptions. From quantitative and qualitative data, we noted three integrative findings. First, educators reported relatively high levels of expectancy beliefs for supporting student emotions informed by their teaching experience and the extent to which they had developed tools and strategies to respond to student emotions. Second, perceptions of value depended on the emotion under consideration; positive emotions were valued more than negative ones, and the ways in which educators understood emotions as facilitating learning was specific to the given emotion. Third, despite identifying challenges such as the time and effort it takes to support student emotions, educators tended to push back against the idea that emotions have a cost during learning. Findings have implications for supporting educators as they navigate student emotions during learning and contribute to ongoing debates about the extent to which certain emotion and motivation constructs, especially interest and curiosity, are differentiated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher education institutions are striving to lower student dropout rates to increase the number of academically qualified persons in the labour market and decrease misguided investment. Researchers generally acknowledge that students who are firmly decided on their studies tend to drop out of their studies less frequently. Building on the extended expectancy-value model via the cost component, this longitudinal study investigates changes in and the impact of students' motivation on career decidedness and intention to drop out. We analysed data from 351 first-year university students aiming to become teachers across three measurement points, finding that the task effort of students and, to a lesser degree, their interest value was related to career decidedness and, indirectly, to the intention to drop out after the first year in higher education. Moreover, the results revealed that these students' ability beliefs increased and interest value decreased from the beginning to the end of the first year at higher education. Accordingly, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications taken from these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Students’ attitudinal beliefs related to how they see themselves in STEM have been a focal point of recent research, given their well-documented links to retention and persistence. These beliefs are most often assessed cross-sectionally, and as such, we lack a thorough understanding of how they may fluctuate over time. Using matched survey responses from undergraduate engineering students (n = 278), we evaluate if, and to what extent, students’ engineering attitudinal beliefs (attainment value, utility value, self-efficacy, interest, and identity) change over a 1-year period. Further, we examine whether there are differences based on gender and student division, and then compare results between cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses to illustrate weaknesses in our current understanding of these constructs. Results Our study revealed inconsistencies between cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of the same dataset. Cross-sectional analyses indicated a significant difference by student division for engineering utility value and engineering interest, but no significant differences by gender for any variable. However, longitudinal analyses revealed statistically significant decreases in engineering utility value, engineering self-efficacy, and engineering interest for lower division students and significant decreases in engineering attainment value for upper division students over a one-year period. Further, longitudinal analyses revealed a gender gap in engineering self-efficacy for upper division students, where men reported higher means than women. Conclusions Our analyses make several contributions. First, we explore attitudinal differences by student division not previously documented. Second, by comparing across methodologies, we illustrate that different conclusions can be drawn from the same data. Since the literature around these variables is largely cross-sectional, our understanding of students’ engineering attitudes is limited. Our longitudinal analyses show variation in engineering attitudinal beliefs that are obscured when data is only examined cross-sectionally. These analyses revealed an overall downward trend within students for all beliefs that changed significantly—losses which may foreshadow attrition out of engineering. These findings provide an opportunity to introduce targeted interventions to build engineering utility value, engineering self-efficacy, and engineering interest for student groups whose means were lower than average.

Background: First-generation (FG) college students have been a popular subpopulation to study within educational literature as these students experience many unique challenges in their academic careers causing them to drop out within their first year. This gives courses with high first-time freshman numbers such as introductory psychology courses a unique opportunity to reach many of these students. Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine new perspectives of FG students that may further explain hindrances to retention and achievement. Method: One hundred and ninety-three undergraduate students in an introductory psychology course completed surveys on task values in reference to psychology content at three different time points across the semester. Students' exam scores were also reported as a measurement of academic achievement. Results: Analyses showed that FG college students reported higher levels of cost value and growth in cost value across the semester compared to non-FG college students. Conclusion: FG college students experience academic challenges that may be related to their valuing of their educative experience in psychology courses. Teaching Implications: Educators should actively attempt to alleviate academic obstacles facing FG college students by increasing access to the professor, ease of access to help, and assignment clarity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses data from an urban school district to examine the relation between students' motivational beliefs about mathematics and high- versus low-stakes math test performance. We use ordinary least squares and quantile regression analyses and find that the association between students' motivation and test performance differs based on the stakes of the exam. Students' math self-efficacy and performance avoidance goal orientation were the strongest predictors for both exams; however, students' math self-efficacy was more strongly related to achievement on the low-stakes exam. Students' motivational beliefs had a stronger association at the low-stakes exam proficiency cutoff than they did at the high-stakes passing cutoff. Lastly, the negative association between performance avoidance goals and high-stakes performance showed a decreasing trend across the achievement distribution, suggesting that performance avoidance goals are more detrimental for lower achieving students. These findings help parse out the ways motivation influences achievement under different stakes.

Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) is a prominent theory on student motivation. To add to the growing research in this area, we investigated students within a large, mandatory course outside of the STEM areas, to examine perceptions of success utilizing an EVT lens. The aim of our study was twofold. First, to examine students' open-ended responses about what makes them feel successful. Second, to determine if students' indorsement of expectancy, value, and control could predict their feelings of success. The study consisted of 210 students who completed an online questionnaire with items related to demographics, EVT components, and questions about their success in the course. Deductive coding was utilized to examine their feelings of success based on the EVT components. Regression analysis was utilized to predict perceptions of success. Students identified several components of their course that were associated with expectancy, value, and cost. Students' perceptions of success were positively predicted by expectancy and negatively predicted by cost while value was not a significant predictor. Our results speak to the importance of expectancy, value, and cost when designing large, mandatory courses. We provided several recommendations for instructors when designing courses, and also highlight limitations and future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Students' attitudinal beliefs related to how they see themselves in STEM have been a focal point of recent research, given their well-documented links to retention and persistence. These beliefs are most often assessed cross-sectionally, and as such, we lack a thorough understanding of how they may fluctuate over time. Using matched survey responses from undergraduate engineering students (n = 278), we evaluate if, and to what extent, students' engineering attitudinal beliefs (attainment value, utility value, self-efficacy, interest, and identity) change over a 1-year period. Further, we examine whether there are differences based on gender and student division, and then compare results between cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses to illustrate weaknesses in our current understanding of these constructs. Results: Our study revealed inconsistencies between cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of the same dataset. Cross-sectional analyses indicated a significant difference by student division for engineering utility value and engineering interest, but no significant differences by gender for any variable. However, longitudinal analyses revealed statistically significant decreases in engineering utility value, engineering self-efficacy, and engineering interest for lower division students and significant decreases in engineering attainment value for upper division students over a one-year period. Further, longitudinal analyses revealed a gender gap in engineering self-efficacy for upper division students, where men reported higher means than women. Conclusions: Our analyses make several contributions. First, we explore attitudinal differences by student division not previously documented. Second, by comparing across methodologies, we illustrate that different conclusions can be drawn from the same data. Since the literature around these variables is largely cross-sectional, our understanding of students' engineering attitudes is limited. Our longitudinal analyses show variation in engineering attitudinal beliefs that are obscured when data is only examined cross-sectionally. These analyses revealed an overall downward trend within students for all beliefs that changed significantly—losses which may foreshadow attrition out of engineering. These findings provide an opportunity to introduce targeted interventions to build engineering utility value, engineering self-efficacy, and engineering interest for student groups whose means were lower than average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of educational digital games as supplemental tools to course instruction materials has increased over the last several decades and especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. Though these types of instructional games have been employed in the majority of STEM disciplines, less is known about how diverse populations of students interpret and define the value of these games towards achieving academic and professional pursuits. A mixed-method sequential exploratory research design method that was framed on the Technology Acceptance Model, Game-Based Learning Theory and Expectancy Value Theory was used to examine how 201 students perceived the usefulness of an intuitive education game that was designed to teach engineering mechanics used in designing civil structures. We found that students had different expectations of educational digital games than games designed for entertainment used outside of classroom environments. Several students thought that the ability to design their own structures and observe structure failure in real-time was a valuable asset in understanding how truss structures responded to physical loading conditions. However, few students thought the educational game would be useful for exam (14/26) or job interview (19/26) preparation. Students associated more value with engineering games that illustrate course content and mathematical calculations used in STEM courses than those that do not include these elements.

This case study explores the utility of Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) as a framework for studying elementary teachers' beliefs and motivations with respect to reformed mathematics instruction. A model for coding and evaluating qualitative data using EVT is proposed and illustrated using interviews with three primary school teachers in an urban school district in the United States. Results from the study indicate that anticipated costs associated with reform instruction, including not covering required content and not meeting district benchmarks, function as strong inhibitors to reform, even among teachers who value reform instruction, who exhibit a strong sense of self-efficacy, and who believe in their students' capacities to succeed with reform-oriented instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Concussion-symptom education remains the primary approach used by athletic trainers to address underreporting of possible sport-related concussions. Social marketing represents an untapped approach to promote concussion reporting by communicating the benefits or consequences of reporting or not reporting, respectively. Objective: To apply expectancy value theory and identify how marketing the possible consequences of concealing concussion symptoms influenced young adults' concussionreporting beliefs to increase the likelihood of reporting. Design: Randomized controlled clinical trial. Setting: Laboratory. Patients or Other Participants: A total of 468 competitive collegiate club sport athletes at a large US university who engaged in 1 of 46 sports with various levels of concussion risk. Intervention(s): Participants were randomly assigned by team to 1 of 3 conditions. The treatment condition was a socialmarketing program focused on the possible consequences of the reporting decision. The control condition was traditional concussion-symptom education based on the National Collegiate Athletic Association's publication, "Concussion: A Fact Sheet for Student-Athletes." An additional condition mirrored the traditional symptom education but included a less clinical delivery. Main Outcome Measure(s): Positive and negative beliefs regarding concussion reporting were assessed. We applied expectancy value theory, which posits that changing beliefs in the short term will produce greater reporting intentions in the long term. Results: Club sport athletes exposed to consequencebased social marketing showed higher levels of positive reporting beliefs and lower levels of negative reporting beliefs than athletes exposed to traditional or revised symptom education. We observed no differences between the traditional and revised symptom-education programs. Exposure to consequence- based marketing decreased negative beliefs about reporting (B =-0.165, P = .01) and increased positive beliefs about reporting (B = 0.165, P=.01). Conclusions: Social marketing offers athletic trainers another strategic tool for motivating athletes to report concussion symptoms by translating scientific findings into marketable statements and then communicating the benefits of reporting or the negative consequences of concealing concussion symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expectancy value theory is often evoked by educational psychologists to explain gender differences in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) variables. Yet gender does not operate in isolation. Nor are gender effects likely to be context free. In the current meta-analysis, we explore gender differences in STEM-related expectancy for success, and the task values of intrinsic, utility, attainment, and cost. We find that gender differences were generally small in size. Invoking the concept of intersectionality, we find that heterogeneity in gender effect sizes are large and gender differences are moderated, primarily, by socioeconomic status, ethnic diversity, and somewhat by national gender equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Guided by Expectancy Value Theory (EVT), we investigated the association of students' engineering self-efficacy and subjective task values (attainment, intrinsic, utility and cost) to four achievement-related behaviours: choice to take more engineering courses, effort in academic tasks, persistence to complete engineering tasks in the face of difficulties, and continuation in the field of engineering. Participants included 163 engineering college students from a large southern metropolitan university in the United States. Bivariate correlations and multiple hierarchical regressions were conducted to examine the relationships among variables. Results showed that engineering self-efficacy and subjective task values (except cost) were positively associated with achievement behaviours respectively. However, once the set of subjective task values were entered in the regression models, self-efficacy did not explain significant unique variance for any of the achievement-related behaviours. Intrinsic interest emerged as the most consistent predictor of achievement-related behaviours when controlling for self-efficacy and the other four task value dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students’ motivation to participate in classroom activities is one of the elements of successful and quality teaching. Throughout history, teachers have used different approaches to motivate students: fear of punishment, coercion, or development of interest. Contemporary approaches emphasize intrinsic motivation, more precisely interest as a driver of student activity in the classroom. The paper presents results of a study that sought to analyze the task value as an element of participation in classroom activities of school subject Nature and society in lower elementary school students. As a background expectancy-value (EVT) of motivation was used. EVT analyses individuals task value through four components: interest or enjoyment of activity, perceived importance of success in activity, perceived usefulness, and price of activity. 246 second, third and fourth grade students of two rural primary schools were surveyed and modified Motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (Pintrich et al., 1991) was used to collect the data. The results of the research lead to several conclusions. Respondents attach high value to participation in classroom activities of school subject Nature and society regardless of gender and age. Also, there is no differences found in the results caused by variables of age or gender of the respondents in any of the three examined components of the task value as an element of participation in classroom activities: interest or enjoyment in the activity, perceived importance of being successful in the activity, and perceived usefulness of the activity to achieve the short-term and long-term goals of the students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) coursework selection by women and men (representative longitudinal sample, 10,370 Australians) in senior high school and university, controlling achievement and expectancy-value variables. A near-zero total effect of gender on high school STEM enrollment reflected pathways favoring boys through achievement and expectancy-value variables, but a counteracting direct effect of gender favoring girls. In contrast, subsequent university STEM enrollment favored boys. In both high school and university, enrollments favored girls in life sciences and boys in physical sciences, but at university there was a leaky pipeline in which girls who qualified to pursue physical sciences opted for non-STEM subjects. Qualitative analysis not only supported quantitative results but also highlighted alternative mechanisms of STEM engagement/disengagement, and mostly supported gender similarities rather than differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Expectancy value interactions significantly predicted academic achievement. • Findings replicated and extended the study by Trautwein et al. (2012). • Results emphasized the theoretical and practical importance of interactions in EVT. • Differential effects for grades, final examinations and standardized test scores. • Differential effects across domains (mathematics and English). Motivation predicts academic achievement beyond cognitive ability. Expectancy value theory (Eccles et al., 1983) is a widely accepted and powerful approach explaining academic achievement as well as educational choices and attainment. Recently, attention to the multiplicative term of expectancy and value beliefs has increased. Trautwein et al. (2012) reported a detrimental effect of high task value when expectancy beliefs were low. We aimed to replicate and extend their study by using a large, representative sample of students attending upper secondary school in the German federal state Schleswig-Holstein (N = 3367). Following Trautwein et al. (2012), we applied latent interaction modelling to test whether the predictive value of expectancy value interactions differs for grades, final examinations, and standardized test scores as measures of achievement in two domains. We took the multi-dimensional structure of task value into consideration, analyzing the four components (attainment, intrinsic value, utility and cost) separately. Both a verbal and a non-verbal domain (English as a foreign language and mathematics) were investigated. Overall, the results supported those of Trautwein et al. (2012). However, our findings suggested measure- and domain-specific differences when using expectancy value beliefs and their interactions to predict academic achievement. Interaction terms predicted final examination results in both English and mathematics. Further, interaction effects were significant for grades in English but not mathematics. In general, effect sizes of multiplicative terms were small, especially in contrast to expectancy beliefs. Findings are discussed regarding the practical and conceptual importance of the multiplicative term in expectancy value theory applied in an educational setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing body of research suggests that interventions promoting students' utility value for a subject can improve their academic outcomes. However, numerous questions remain regarding how much to adapt prior intervention materials to promote utility value in new educational contexts and how implementation constraints of an educational context may impact the success of these interventions. In this study, using a design-based process we developed and tested three utility value interventions in a new educational context (online high school math). We found that one of the interventions increased utility value compared to control conditions, but we also encountered constraints on intervention implementation that limited the effectiveness of our intervention and the conclusions we could draw from this work. We use our experience as a case study to illustrate the costs and benefits of making certain implementation choices when partnering with practitioners to administer utility value interventions in new contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Can engaging college students in client‐centered projects in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) coursework increase interest in STEM professions? The current study explored the effectiveness of project‐based learning (PjBL) courses on student attitudes, major choice, and career aspirations in STEM. Framed in expectancy‐value and social cognitive career choice models, we examined the effect of engaging in at least one authentic, project‐based course during the first four semesters of college on student STEM attitudes and career aspirations in a quasi‐experimental study with a sample of (N = 492) natural science and engineering students. STEM self‐efficacy and subjective task value variables (STEM attainment, intrinsic and utility value of STEM courses, and relative cost associated with engaging in STEM courses) were examined as mediators of the relationship between classroom project‐based experiences and STEM career aspirations. Gender and underrepresented minority status were also examined. We found that engaging in at least one project‐based course during the first four semesters affected student perceptions of STEM skills, perceptions of the utility value of participating in STEM courses, and STEM career aspirations. Furthermore, we found that the effect of project‐based courses on STEM career aspirations was mediated by STEM skills and perceptions of course utility. The effect of PjBL was not moderated by race or gender. We highlight areas of future research and the promise of PjBL for engaging students in STEM professions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the Wabash National Study of Liberal Arts Education, we analyzed whether certain precollege characteristics and experiences predicted students' academic motivation when entering their first year of college. Results indicated that some precollege experiences positively predicted students' academic motivation at the start of college, including certain minoritized identities, such as holding non-U.S. citizenship status, being a first-generation student, and being low-income; as well as higher measures of academic achievement and engagement, such as a higher high school GPA, a higher frequency of participation in high school extracurriculars, and a higher frequency of interacting with teachers. Conversely, higher ACT/SAT scores and higher reported frequency of socializing with friends negatively predicted students' precollege levels of academic motivation. Implications for institutions of higher education, including faculty staff, as well as for high school guidance counselors, are considered. • This study examined the precollege factors that predicted students' academic motivation when entering their first year of college/university. • Holding non-U.S. citizenship status, being first-generation, being low-income, higher GPA, higher participation in extracurriculars, and more frequent teacher interactions positively predicted precollege academic motivation. • Higher ACT/SAT scores and higher reported frequency of socializing with friends negatively predicted students' precollege academic motivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we explore motivational structure of students taking a challenging university course. The participants were second-year undergraduate students majoring in Economics, Sociology, Management and Humanities, enrolled in the Data Science minor. Using expectancy-value theory as a framework, we aim (1) to analyze gender differences in motivation; (2) to identify the link between the components of motivation and academic achievement; (3) to estimate the role of the previous academic achievement and educational choices. Two alternative theoretical models are proposed and tested on empirical data. Structural equation modeling (SEM) in M Plus 7.31 was used for analysis. We found that the course is more popular among males students, who also demonstrate higher level of expectancy for success. However, there is no gender difference in academic performance. Students majoring in Sociology and Economics perceive Data Science as more interesting and useful than Management and Humanities students. SEM analysis empirically validated the model in which expectancy of success directly influences academic achievement, and values influence is mediated by expectancies. The final model that includes motivation, gender, student’s major, and previous achievement explains 34% of variance in academic performance. We discuss the role of different components of student motivation and practical significance of our results.

In this report, we describe the initial stages of a crosscutting research effort to characterize literature reviewed across 8 different projects—each with objectives aligned toward improving student engagement in science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics (STEAM) fields. These projects sought to identify malleable factors (e.g., motivation, persistence) that could potentially be fostered to improve achievement motivation and build participation among historically underrepresented learners in STEAM pathways. Focusing on both the extent to which different broad and facet‐level constructs are both discussed and assessed in a diverse pool of literature, we developed a standardized reporting structure and catalogued detailed information on 236 unique references. We found that, as a proportion of the number of times constructs in the STEAM, expectancy value (EV) theory, and social emotional learning (SEL) spaces were discussed in the reviewed literature, they were assessed relatively infrequently. We also found high levels of overlap in the literature across the above 3 focal areas, highlighting both the need to document new assessments designed to support STEAM engagement and an opportunity to use them to evaluate expectancy value theory as a holistic model. Report Number: ETS RR–18‐33 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of environmental knowledge and perceived product quality on purchasing intention and purchasing behavior of recycled products: A4 paper, mobile phones and printers. The intent is to understand how to move future generations toward more sustainable behavior, as currently unsustainable amounts of waste are generated across the Far East. Expectancy value theory and the theory of reasoned action are applied to the purchase of products with recovered and/or recycled content (n = 215). The study indicates: (1) a significant positive relationship was found between both the intention to purchase and the purchase of recycled products; (2) the perception of recycled product risk has a significant negative impact on the perception of recycled product quality and the attitude toward environmental protection; (3) perceived quality of recycled product is positively related to attitude toward environmental protection; (4) perceived quality of recycled product and attitude to environmental protection are positively related to intention to purchase recycled products; and (5) surprisingly, knowledge regarding environmental damage and pollution is unrelated to attitude toward environmental protection. This study offers new insights into the impact of education on environmental protection, purchasing of greener products and the need for environmental education to move from a goal of understanding to that of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the way in which a Namibian initiative to provide time in the school curriculum for engagement with reading may be developed into a practical reading programme. Based on principles of self-determination theory and expectancy value theory, as well as the work of Kimberly Safford about reading for pleasure, enabling physical and social classroom contexts that promote reading for pleasure was explored in a Namibian context. Viewing reading as part of a variety of literacy practices, different forms of reading as well as a variety of reading activities were integrated in the programme. The article reports on this process by documenting learner views on the reading programme. The programme was implemented with 48 Grade 7 learners in an urban, primary school in Namibia. The primary sources of data included eight focus group interviews, as well as a questionnaire which evaluated the reading programme. The results indicate that the implementation of the principles of the programme regarding choice and variety of texts stimulated the rediscovery of the joy of reading. Learners recommended that in future programmes digital reading activities should be further developed. There was a strong focus on the educational value of reading throughout. Furthermore, the merit of responding to texts in writing was pointed out. While learners agreed that the sharing of views regarding reading experiences built understanding of texts and was motivating, social reasons for reading seemed complicated and reading ability was regarded as a personal matter. The article concludes that, similar to other research findings, attention to reading for pleasure is important in developing reading motivation. The value of the study is situated in the use of views of Namibian learners towards the development of guidelines for similar programmes, as well as in the illustration of useful strategies for building a reading culture in schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss task-value interventions as one type of relevance intervention and propose a process model of value reappraisal whereby task-value interventions elicit cognitive-affective responses that lead to attitude change and in turn affect academic outcomes. The model incorporates a metacognitive component showing that students can intentionally self-regulate their subjective task values. Two potential moderators of this process are proposed: baseline individual differences and classroom-level factors. We review evidence for the proposed relationships in the model and identify gaps in the literature. Drawing from models of persuasion and self-regulation, we discuss theoretical foundations of the value-reappraisal model and propose value-reappraisal strategies involved in the modification of subjective task values and reasons for (or against) task engagement. We also outline implications for designing task-value interventions and future research directions. The value-reappraisal model could help inform the continued development of task-value interventions and explain intervention effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An emerging literature demonstrates that relevance interventions, which ask students to produce written reflections on how what they are learning relates to their lives, improve student learning outcomes. As part of a randomized evaluation of a relevance intervention (N= 1,978 students from 82 ninth-grade classes), we used Complier Average Causal Effects (CACE) to identify the effect of the intervention on participants who were assigned to the intervention group and were actually compliant with the intervention (i.e., treatment fidelity or compliance). Results revealed larger differences for compliers than noncompliers, although this impact depended on several factors. Implications for the application of CACE models in educational interventions, in general, and relevance interventions, in particular, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relevant others (e.g., fellow group members) influence how goals and goal-directed behaviors are construed and valued. In turn, according to the “expectancy × value” model of motivated behavioral choice, people engage in goal-directed behaviors when they expect success and ascribe high values to a certain task. In this pilot study, we combine predictions from a social psychological goal perspective with recent theoretical developments from educational psychology, testing the processes that link a person’s social identity with the effort for the achievement goals. With a pilot study using a sample of 86 university students, we tested the assumption that expectation for success and subjective task values mediate the relation between the student identity and effort intentions. In line with our expectations, stronger identification with the group of students was related to stronger effort intentions, mediated via interest and attainment value. These results suggest that social identity may have a profound impact on the engagement decisions made in educational settings.