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Facial expressions play an important role during communications, allowing information regarding the emotional state of an individual to be conveyed and inferred. Research suggests that automatic facial expression recognition is a promising avenue of enquiry in mental healthcare, as facial expressions can also reflect an individual's mental state. In order to develop user-friendly, low-cost and effective facial expression analysis systems for mental health care, this paper presents a novel deep convolution network based emotion analysis framework to support mental state detection and diagnosis. The proposed system is able to process facial images and interpret the temporal evolution of emotions through a new solution in which deep features are extracted from the Fully Connected Layer 6 of the AlexNet, with a standard Linear Discriminant Analysis Classifier exploited to obtain the final classification outcome. It is tested against 5 benchmarking databases, including JAFFE, KDEF,CK+, and databases with the images obtained ‘in the wild’ such as FER2013 and AffectNet. Compared with the other state-of-the-art methods, we observe that our method has overall higher accuracy of facial expression recognition. Additionally, when compared to the state-of-the-art deep learning algorithms such as Vgg16, GoogleNet, ResNet and AlexNet, the proposed method demonstrated better efficiency and has less device requirements. The experiments presented in this paper demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms the other methods in terms of accuracy and efficiency which suggests it could act as a smart, low-cost, user-friendly cognitive aid to detect, monitor, and diagnose the mental health of a patient through automatic facial expression analysis.

Recent evolutionary studies on cooperation devote specific attention to non-verbal expressions of emotions. In this paper, I examine Robert Frank’s popular attempt to explain emotions, non-verbal markers and social behaviours. Following this line of work, I focus on the green-beard explanation of social behaviours. In response to the criticisms raised against this controversial ultimate explanation, based on resources found in Frank’s work, I propose an alternative red-beard explanation of human sociality. The red-beard explanation explains the emergence and evolution of emotions, a proximate cause, rather than patterns of behaviour. In contrast to simple evolutionary models that invoke a green-beard mechanism, I demonstrate that the red-beard explanation can be evolutionary stable. Social emotions are a common cause of a social behaviour and a phenotypic marker and therefore cooperative behaviour cannot be suppressed without also changing the marker.

The distance education model has insufficient consideration of the emotional aspects of the students, where the training action takes place without personal interactions, causing it to be very difficult to feel like a member of an educational community. The research aimed to observe the evolution of emotions and learning styles during the Master’s Degree in Research in Teacher Training and ICT. A quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest, single-group research design was employed, using descriptive and inferential data analysis. On the one hand, the questionnaire to measure emotions towards the elements of online education. On the other hand, the REATIC (Relation of Learning Styles with ICT, in Spanish) questionnaire. A significant increase in boredom has been observed and the predominant learning styles are pragmatic and theoretical.

Putting one’s feelings into words (also called affect labeling) can attenuate positive and negative emotions. Here, we track the evolution of specific emotions for 74,487 Twitter users by analysing the emotional content of their tweets before and after they explicitly report experiencing a positive or negative emotion. Our results describe the evolution of emotions and their expression at the temporal resolution of one minute. The expression of positive emotions is preceded by a short, steep increase in positive valence and followed by short decay to normal levels. Negative emotions, however, build up more slowly and are followed by a sharp reversal to previous levels, consistent with previous studies demonstrating the attenuating effects of affect labeling. We estimate that positive and negative emotions last approximately 1.25 and 1.5 h, respectively, from onset to evanescence. A separate analysis for male and female individuals suggests the potential for gender-specific differences in emotional dynamics. Bollen et al. tracked changes in the emotions of Twitter users before and after they expressed a feeling online. Emotions grow quickly before—and decrease rapidly after—their expression, confirming previous affect labeling studies showing that putting one’s feelings into words can alleviate their intensity.

Since the beginning of the pandemic caused by Covid-19, the emotions of humanity have evolved abruptly, mainly for policies adopted by the governments of countries. These policies, since they have a high impact on people’s health, need feedback on people’s emotional perception and their connections with entities directly related to emotions, to have relevant information for decision making. Given the global social isolation, emotions have been expressed with higher magnitude in comments on social networks, generating a large amount of data that is a source for various investigations. The objective of this work is to design and adapt an interactive visualization tool called CovidStream, for monitoring the evolution of emotions associated with Covid-19 in Peru, for which Visual Analytics, Deep learning, and Sentiment Analysis techniques are combined. This visualization tool allows showing the evolution of the emotions associated with the Covid-19 and its relationships with three entities: persons, places, and organizations, which have an impact on emotions, all in a temporal space dimension. For the visualization of entities and emotions, Peruvian tweets extracted between January and July 2020 were used, all of them with the hashtag #Covid-19. For the classification of emotions, a recurrent neural network model with LSTM architecture was implemented, taking as training and test data the one proposed by SemEval-2018 Task1, corresponding to Spanish tweets labeled with emotions: anger, fear, joy, and sadness.

Background With outbreaks of COVID-19 around the world, lockdown restrictions are routinely imposed to limit the spread of the virus. During periods of lockdown, social media has become the main channel for citizens to exchange information with others. Public emotions are being generated and shared rapidly online with citizens using internet platforms to reduce anxiety and stress, and stay connected while isolated. Objectives This study aims to explore the regularity of emotional evolution by examining public emotions expressed in online discussions about the Wuhan lockdown event in January 2020. Methods Data related to the Wuhan lockdown was collected from Sina Weibo by web crawler. In this study, the Ortony, Clore, and Collins (OCC) model, Word2Vec, and Bi-directional Long Short-Term Memory model were employed to determine emotional types, train vectorization of words, and identify each text emotion for the training set. Latent Dirichlet Allocation models were also employed to mine the various topic categories, while topic emotional evolution was visualized. Results Seven types of emotions and four phases were categorized to describe emotional evolution on the Wuhan lockdown event. The study found that negative emotions such as blame and fear dominated in the early days, and public attitudes towards the lockdown gradually alleviated and reached a balance as the situation improved. Emotional expression about Wuhan lockdown event were significantly related to users’ gender, location, and whether or not their account was verified. There were statistically significant correlations between different emotions within the subtle emotional categories. In addition, the evolution of emotions presented a different path due to different topics. Conclusions Multiple emotional categories were determined in our study, providing a detailed and explainable emotion analysis to explored emotional appeal of citizen. The public emotions were gradually easing related to the Wuhan lockdown event, there yet exists regional discrimination and post-traumatic stress disorder in this process, which would lead us to pay continuous attention to citizens lives and psychological status post-pandemic. In addition, this study provided an appropriate method and reference case for the government's public opinion control and emotional appeasement.

ARE THERE DIFFERENCES IN THE EMOTIONS EXPERIENCED BY STUDENTS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ACCORDING TO THE COURSE?The present research arises for the need to know and detect the emotions that Compulsory Secondary Education students experienced towards the learning of Physics and Chemistry, because there is a decrease in the number of students at the different itineraries related to the science. This research analyzed and compared the evolution of emotions experienced by the ESO students to learning Physics and Chemistry according to the grade, and if there is a relationship between the emotions and the academic performance. The sample consisted of 431 students of Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) from different schools in Badajoz during the 2014/2015 academic year. A descriptive methodology by survey was used for performing this research. The participants completed a questionnaire anonymously about emotions experienced during the learning in the field of Physics and Chemistry and the frequency, as well as the marks they get. The results showed that the students of Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) experienced a decrease in the average frequency of positive emotions from 2nd to 4th ESO level. On the other hand, negative emotions increased from 2nd to 4th ESO level. In addition, an increases in average frequency of positive emotions as the academic performance increases.Key Words: Emotions, Contents, Physics and Chemistry; Learning; Secondary.Resumen.La presenta investigación surge por la necesidad de conocer y detectar las emociones que experimentan los alumnos de Educación Secundaria hacia el aprendizaje de Física y Química, pues se está produciendo una disminución en el número de alumnos en los distintos itinerarios relacionados con las Ciencias. En esta investigación se analiza y compara la evolución de las emociones que experimentan los alumnos de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria hacia el aprendizaje de Física y Química en función del curso, y si existe una relación entre las emociones y el rendimiento académico. La muestra estaba constituida por 431 alumnos de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO), distribuidos en tres cursos: 2º, 3º y 4º de ESO; de distintos centros de Badajoz durante el curso escolar 2014/2015. Para realizar esta investigación, se elaboró un cuestionario donde el alumno señalaba con qué frecuencia experimentaba emociones tanto positivas como negativas hacia el aprendizaje de Física y Química. Los resultados muestran que existe un descenso en la frecuencia media de emociones positivas al pasar del 2º al 4º curso de ESO. En cambio, se produce un aumento en la frecuencia media de las emociones negativas al pasar de 2º a 4º de ESO.Palabras Claves: Emociones, Física y Química, Alumnos, Educación Secundaria, Curso, Rendimiento académico.

Aims To describe nurses' experiences regarding the care relationship built with medical-surgical patients in acute hospitalization units and the association with their clinical practice. Background Nurses' commitment to care and their relationships as well are the core of quality of care. Nurses consider that the emotional commitment is essential to the profession, thus accepting to be exposed to emotional distress. Methods In-depth interviews were conducted to explore the experience of 23 nurses from seven Spanish hospitals. Taped interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed according to inductive content analysis. Results Six subcategories emerged from the data analysis: Fulfilling experiences, Feeling the pain of others, Emotional distress, Stepping back, Seeking professional support, and Evolution of emotions, which were combined in two main categories: Nurses' emotions and Nurses' coping strategies. Patient's suffering, work environment and interprofessional relations influence the care relationship. Conclusions Positive and negative emotions emerge spontaneously in professional relationships of experienced nurses. Lack of time and high workloads are factors that hinder the nurse-patient relationship. This care relationship is often the reason that fulfils them. Despite their level of expertise and having coping strategies, these are not always effective and, sometimes, nurses need professional help. Implications for nursing management Nurses will continue performing their job with commitment; therefore, nursing managers should take care of their staff and pay attention to the emotional competence related to patients' relationships. Promoting self-care and a good working environment could improve their coping mechanisms.

‘What exactly is the history of emotions?’ This question, often still encountered by historians working in the field, suggests that the history of emotions is difficult to understand yet hard to ignore. Historians active in other areas may have noticed the recent founding (and funding) of emotions research centres by Queen Mary, University of London, the Max Planck Society and the Australian Research Council. Yet the emergence of a critical mass of emotions researchers has not altogether dispelled concerns that emotions are not really accessible to the historian or worthy of sustained and serious consideration. Even a pioneer of the once dubious field of cultural history such as Peter Burke has wondered about the history of emotions’ viability while recognising its promise. As he sees it, if historians regard emotions as stable across time (and thus pre-cultural, it seems) then all they can do is chart changing attitudes to these constant emotions. This leaves historians writing intellectual history but not the history of emotions. If historians, by contrast, treat emotions as historically variable then they may deliver more innovative work, but they may also end up struggling to find evidence for their conclusions. Taking anxiety as an example, Burke asks pointedly how ‘could a historian possibly find evidence to establish’ whether people were more anxious in a given historical period than another, rather than simply being affected by different anxieties. The books under review here represent the latest generation of historians’ efforts to answer Burke's questions and examine whether and how fundamental changes in the history of emotions can be charted.

Emotions are sometimes revealed through facial expressions. When these natural facial articulations involve the contraction of the same muscle groups in people of distinct cultural upbringings, this is taken as evidence of a biological origin of these emotions. While past research had identified facial expressions associated with a single internally felt category (eg, the facial expression of happiness when we feel joyful), we have recently studied facial expressions observed when people experience compound emotions (eg, the facial expression of happy surprise when we feel joyful in a surprised way, as, for example, at a surprise birthday party). Our research has identified 17 compound expressions consistently produced across cultures, suggesting that the number of facial expressions of emotion of biological origin is much larger than previously believed. The present paper provides an overview of these findings and shows evidence supporting the view that spontaneous expressions are produced using the same facial articulations previously identified in laboratory experiments. We also discuss the implications of our results in the study of psychopathologies, and consider several open research questions.Algunas veces las emociones se revelan mediante las expresiones faciales. Cuando estas articulaciones faciales naturales involucran la contracción de los mismos grupos musculares en personas de distintas educaciones culturales, esto se considera como evidencia de un origen biológico de estas emociones. Aunque la investigación previa ha identificado expresiones faciales asociadas con categorías únicas sentidas internamente (por ejemplo, la expresión facial de felicidad cuando nos sentimos alegres), nosotros hemos estudiado recientemente expresiones faciales observadas cuando las personas experimentan emociones combinadas (por ejemplo, la expresión facial de agradable sorpresa cuando nos sentimos alegres de manera sorpresiva, como en una fiesta de cumpleaños sorpresa). Nuestra investigación ha identificado 17 expresiones combinadas que se producen consistentemente a través de las culturas, sugiriendo que el número de expresiones faciales de la emoción de origen biológico es mucho mayor que lo que se creía previamente. Este artículo aporta una panorámica de estos hallazgos y muestra la evidencia que sustenta la opinión que las expresiones espontáneas son producidas empleando las mismas articulaciones faciales identificadas previamente en experimentos de laboratorio. También se discuten las implicancias de nuestros resultados en el estudio de psicopatologías y se consideran varias preguntas abiertas para investigar.Les émotions sont parfois révélées par les expressions faciales. Lorsque ces articulations faciales naturelles mettent en jeu la contraction des mêmes groupes musculaires chez des individus de culture différente, cela prouve l'origine biologique de ces émotions. Les recherches antérieures ont montré que les expressions faciales étaient associées à une catégorie unique de ressenti intérieur (par exemple, l'expression faciale de bonheur lorsque nous sommes joyeux), mais nous avons récemment étudié les expressions faciles des gens qui vivent des émotions complexes (ainsi l'expression faciale de surprise joyeuse lorsque nous ressentons de la joie en étant surpris, lors d'une fête anniversaire surprise par exemple). Nous avons identifié lors de nos recherches 17 expressions complexes reproduites régulièrement quelle que soit la culture, ce qui suggère que le nombre d'expressions faciales d'émotions d'origine biologique est beaucoup plus important que ce que l'on pensait. Ces résultats sont présentés dans cet article et confortent l'idée que les expressions spontanées sont réalisées par les mêmes articulations faciales que celles identifiées précédemment en laboratoire. Nous analysons aussi les implications de nos résultats en psychopathologie et nous envisageons plusieurs questions ouvertes de recherche.

This chapter explains the theoretical foundations underlying the emotion research reported in this book. It discusses general approaches to studying emotions across the disciplines and examines the growing research in political science. Erisen pays particular attention to conceptualizations of emotions and introduces the three specific emotions studied throughout the book. The chapter examines in detail debates concerning the theoretical foundations of anger, fear (or anxiety), and enthusiasm, and discusses attitudinal and behavioral findings from previous emotions research. Finally, the chapter reviews the foundations of emotion induction methods and measurement tools employed in contemporary experimental studies and survey research.

Facial expressions of happiness, excitement, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, and calm were presented stereoscopically to create pair wise perceptual conflict. Dominance of one expression over another as the most common result, but basic emotions (happiness, fear, etc.) failed to dominate non-basic emotions (excitement, calm), Instead, extremely pleasant or extremely unpleasant emotions dominated less valenced emotions (e.g. surprise). Blends of the presented pairs also occurred, mainly when the emotions were adjacent according to a circumplex structure of emotion. Blends were most common among negatively valenced emotions, such as fear, anger, and disgust.

Many of today's online news Web sites have enabled users to specify different types of emotions (e.g., angry or shocked) they have after reading news. Compared with traditional user feedbacks such as comments and ratings, these specific emotion annotations are more accurate for expressing users' personal emotions. In this paper, we propose to exploit these users' emotion annotations for online news in order to track the evolution of emotions, which plays an important role in various online services. A critical challenge is how to model emotions with respect to time spans. To this end, we propose a time-aware topic modeling perspective for solving this problem. Specifically, we first develop two models named emotion-Topic over Time (eToT) and mixed emotion-Topic over Time (meToT), in which the topics of news are represented as a beta distribution over time and a multinomial distribution over emotions. While they can uncover the latent relationship among news, emotion and time directly, they cannot capture the evolution of topics. Therefore, we further develop another model named emotion-based Dynamic Topic Model (eDTM), where we explore the state space model for tracking the evolution of topics. In addition, we demonstrate that all of proposed models could enable several potential applications, such as emotion prediction, emotion-based news recommendations, and emotion anomaly detections. Finally, we validate the proposed models with extensive experiments with a real-world data set.

The perception of basic emotions such as happy/sad seems to be a human invariant and as such detached from musical experience. On the other hand, there is evidence for cultural specificity: recognition of emotional cues is enhanced if the stimuli and the participants stem from the same culture. A cross-cultural study investigated the following research questions: (1) How are six basic universal emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise) perceivable in music unknown to listeners with different cultural backgrounds?; and (2) Which particular aspects of musical emotions show similarities and differences across cultural boundaries? In a cross-cultural study, 18 musical segments, representing six basic emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise) were presented to subjects from Western Europe (Germany and Norway) and Asia (South Korea and Indonesia). Results give evidence for a pan-cultural emotional sentience in music. However, there were distinct cultural, emotion and item-specific differences in emotion recognition. The results are qualified by the outcome measurement procedure since emotional category labels are language-based and reinforce cultural diversity.

The microblogging has become the important platform for expressing emotion, therefore it is critical for charitable organizations to monitor the public opinion in microblogging. This paper studied the evolution of the public emotions during the charity events. Firstly, we constructed a hierarchical emotion model for events and an emotion monitoring surveillance model. Secondly, we used three machine learning algorithms and three kinds of feature selection methods to study the emotion classiflcation for Chinese microblogging about the events. The experimental results show the performance of SVM and IG feature selection is best, and the accuracy of the classiflcation is flt for need, then the paper discussed a charity event and analyses the evolution of emotions.

Emotions are important because they enable the selection of appropriate behavioural decisions in response to external or internal events. Techniques for understanding and assessing animal emotions, and particularly positive ones, are lacking. Emotions can be characterized by two dimensions: their arousal (bodily excitation) and their valence (negative or positive). Both dimensions can affect emotions in different ways. It is thus crucial to assess their effects on biological parameters simultaneously, so that accurate indicators of arousal and valence can be identified. To find convenient and noninvasive tools to assess emotions in goats, Capra hircus, we measured physiological, behavioural and vocal responses of goats in four situations: (1) control (no external stimulus, neutral); (2) anticipation of a food reward (positive); (3) food-related frustration (negative); (4) isolation away from conspecifics (negative). These situations were characterized by different levels of arousal, assessed a posteriori by heart rates measured during the tests. We found several clear, reliable indicators of arousal and valence. During situations of higher arousal, goats had lower heart rate variability and higher respiration rates. They displayed more head movements, moved more, had their ears pointed forwards more often and on the side (horizontal) less often and produced more calls. They also produced calls with higher fundamental frequencies and higher energy distribution. In positive situations, goats had their ears oriented backwards less often and spent more time with their tails up than in negative situations. Furthermore, they produced calls in which the fundamental frequencies were less variable. Our methods for assessing the effects of emotional arousal and valence on biological parameters could lead to more effective monitoring and understanding of animal emotions, as well as to a better understanding of the evolution of emotions through cross-species comparisons.

In The Face of Emotions, which was Carroll Izard’s first major attempt at elaborating his differential emotions theory (DET), he stated that the book “presents a theoretical framework for the study of emotions and their role in personality and interpersonal processes.” Yet, over the years, his contribution to personality theory has generally been overshadowed by the attention focused on his views on facial expressions and the structure of emotions. This article will begin with a brief overview of the DET perspective on personality development. Then, it will examine how the DET framework can be used to organize recent findings from three lines of research on adult personality. It will conclude with suggestions for future research as well as some personal recollections.

In honoring Carroll Izard’s contributions to emotion research, we discuss infant facial activity and emotion expression. We consider the debated issue of whether infants are biologically prepared to express specific emotions. We offer a perspective that potentially integrates differing viewpoints on infant facial expression of emotion. Specifically, we suggest that evolution has prepared infants with innate action readiness patterns, which are crucial for early infant–caregiver social interaction, and in the course of social interaction specific facial configurations acquire functional significance, becoming associated with specific emotions. Research has not confirmed the presence of innate neurophysiological action patterns that map onto discrete emotions but evidence indicates that the possibility has not been ruled out.

Functional theories posit that emotions are elicited by particular goal-related situations that represented adaptive problems and that emotions are evolved features of coordinated responses to those situations. Yet little theory or research has addressed the evolutionary aspects of these theories. We apply five criteria that can be used to judge whether features are adaptations. There is evidence that sadness, anger, and anxiety relate to unique changes in physiology, cognition, and behavior, those changes are correlated, situations that give rise to emotions are consistent, and emotions are complex. To date, there is little experimental evidence regarding whether discrete emotions resolve adaptive problems and do so relatively efficiently. Evidence supporting all criteria is required to claim that discrete emotions are evolved features.

Detecting the real-time human emotions became recently one important issue in Artificial Intelligent (AI). Numbers of research on emotional facial expressions, the effect of emotion on heart rate, eye movement and the evolution of emotions with the time show the interest of this topic. This paper presents a method for observing the human’s emotional evolutions (sequence of emotions) based on brain activities in its different parts. The Emotiv EPOC headset collects the data of Electroencephalograms (EEG) of the participant to calculate the arousal and valence. After training the system with headset output data, the noise and brain’s data other than emotional information will be cut out according to two levels of filtering. Finally, mapping the result (arousal and valence) with two dimensions circumplex space model presents the real-time emotional evolutions of the participant. Real-time emotional evolutions show all the picks of positive and negative feelings, moreover, analyzing the EEG data will allow recognizing the general emotions, which are the strongest routine senses of the participant. Comparing the unexpected reaction, the time taken by general emotion and feelings in picks, give us a tool to observe the health situation of the people and on the other hand, is an instrument to measure the mood of the people against a video game, news and advertising.

Our thoughts, behavior, experiences, and relationship with the world are all influenced by our emotions, which are a central component of what makes us human. Emotions are forces that help us make sense of our interactionswith the world. Human behavior is a direct consequence of emotions, with the emotions directly affecting perception, cognition, personality system, body language, and the mind. While some emotions are innate, others are learned and synthesized from accrued knowledge. This chapter looks at the evolution of emotion driven design and the related theories and research. It also offers a glimpse of what is to come in this field with the latest technological advances.

According to evolutionary accounts of distinct emotions, these emotions are shaped by natural selection to adjust the physiological, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral parameters of an organism to facilitate its capacity to respond adaptively to threats and opportunities present in the environment. This account has a number of implications, most notably: (a) each distinct emotion serves, or served, an adaptive function, and (b) emotions are comprised of multiple components, all of which should be functional. In this article, I briefly outline an evolutionary approach to understanding distinct emotions, then explain how this approach could be falsified, how one’s own emotion experience differs from the observation of an emotion experience in someone else, and why variability in emotional responding should be expected.

The cognitive approach of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has suggested a bidirectional link between emotions and cognitions. Few studies have looked at a link between those two components. Although some studies tend to show a relationship between emotions and OCD, no study has looked into the relationship between emotions, cognitions, and behaviors over the course of a cognitive therapy. The present case series examines the relationship between cognitive, behavioral, and emotional processes over the course of an inference-based therapy (IBT) in OCD clients. More precisely, we looked at how emotions and OCD symptoms influence each other and how they influence each other over time (through therapy). Clients completed daily diaries rating key emotions, behaviors, and beliefs over the course of treatment. A longitudinal analysis based on an event-based approach was used to maximize the potential of longitudinal data. Results showed that anxiety, sadness, and joy share similar trajectories with beliefs an...

The human face has the capacity to generate expressions associated with a wide range of affective states. Despite the fact that there are few words to describe human facial behaviors, the facial muscles allow for more than a thousand different facial appearances. Some examples of feelings that can be expressed are anger, concentration, contempt, excitement, nervousness, and surprise. Regardless of culture or language, the same expressions are associated with the same emotions and vary only in intensity. Using modern psychological analyses as a point of departure, this essay examines descriptions of human facial expressions as well as such bodily “symptoms” as flushing, turning pale, and weeping in Old Norse-Icelandic literature. The aim is to analyze the manner in which facial signs are used as a means of non-verbal communication to convey the impression of an individual's internal state to observers. More specifically, this essay seeks to determine when and why characters in these works are described as expressing particular facial emotions and, especially, the range of emotions expressed. The Sagas and þaettir of Icelanders are in the forefront of the analysis and yield well over one hundred references to human facial expression and color. The examples show that through gaze, smiling, weeping, brows that are raised or knitted, and coloration, the Sagas and þaettir of Icelanders tell of happiness or amusement, pleasant and unpleasant surprise, fear, anger, rage, sadness, interest, concern, and even mixed emotions for which language has no words. The Sagas and þaettir of Icelanders may be reticent in talking about emotions and poor in emotional vocabulary, but this poverty is compensated for by making facial expressions signifiers of emotion. This essay makes clear that the works are less emotionally barren than often supposed. It also shows that our understanding of Old Norse-Icelandic “somatic semiotics” may well depend on the universality of facial expressions and that culture-specific “display rules” or “elicitors” are virtually nonexistent.

In this contribution, I examine several key publications on the physiology of emotions from the 1860s to the 1930s. I focus on physiologists who studied the emotions prior to and following William James’s 1884 Mind article, by critically reflecting on the conceptual and practical origins and constituents of the Cannon–Bard thalamic theory of emotions. I offer a historical corrective to several major assumptions in our histories of the scientific study of emotions.

Social psychology researchers have proposed a social-functional approach to emotions whereby emotions coordinate people's behaviour to meet the shared challenges in their environment [Keltner, D., Haidt, J., & Shiota, M.N. (2006). Social-functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In M. Schaller, J.A. Simpson, & D.T. Kenrick (Eds.), Evolution and social psychology (pp. 115–142). Madison, CT: Psychosocial Press]. Despite the social nature of sport, a social-functional approach to emotions has yet to be studied in this context. The purpose of the present study was to explore how the social functions of emotions might inform two ice hockey captains' decisions to regulate teammates' emotions. A narrative analysis revealed how the athletes' decisions if, when or how to regulate their teammates' emotions might be situated within a social-functional approach to emotions. Although the emotions evoked, the strategies used, and the social environment was constantly changing, the narratives illustrated the underlyi...

With a few yet increasing number of exceptions, the cognitive sciences enthusiastically endorsed the idea that there are basic facial expressions of emotions that are created by specific configurations of facial muscles. We review evidence that suggests an inherent role for context in emotion perception. Context does not merely change emotion perception at the edges; it leads to radical categorical changes. The reviewed findings suggest that configurations of facial muscles are inherently ambiguous, and they call for a different approach towards the understanding of facial expressions of emotions. Prices of sticking with the modal view, and advantages of an expanded view, are succinctly reviewed.

The link between affective states and psychophysiological activity has been central to the study of behavior for well over a century. With his publication of The expression of the emotions in man and animals , Charles Darwin (1872) provided a foundation for over 140 years of research into the nature of emotions and their physiological and behavioral manifestations. Darwin suggested the existence of distinct kinds of emotional expressions, both somatic and visceral, that were relatively well conserved across phylogeny, and gradually evolved as a result of their adaptive function. A decade later, William James (1884) first articulated his highly influential theory of emotion where he suggested the subjective experience of certain emotions was the result of particular changes in somatovisceral and behavioral responses. Walter Cannon (1927) provided an early challenge to the Jamesian explanation of emotions as a manifestation of specific patterns of somatovisceral activity. Cannon argued physiological responses were the consequence, not the cause, of emotional processes, and that physiological responses were too undifferentiated to account for the variety of distinct emotional feeling states. Cannon’s views were subsequently strengthened when early research failed to demonstrate replicable and generalizable emotion-specific patterns of physiological activity (Harlow & Stagner, 1932). Subsequent work conducted by Schachter and Singer (1962) also appeared to provide strong evidence that the same pattern of physiological activity (arising from epinephrine administration) could result in the experience of different emotions depending on situational cues, which at the time, lent further evidence to the view that emotions were not caused by specific patterns of activity in peripheral physiological systems (although this perspective has now been thoroughly criticized on a number of grounds, see Friedman, 2010). The consensus view of the relationship between emotion and psychophysiological activity was again challenged with the publication of a seminal paper by Ekman, Levenson, and Friesen (1983) where they attributed much of the previous inconsistency between emotions and physiological functioning to a variety of methodological limitations, such as failure to equate the intensity of different emotions and lack of appropriate synchronization between physiological recordings with the likely onset and offset of the elicited emotion. In their study, Ekman et al. measured heart rate, finger temperature, skin resistance, and forearm flexor muscle tension as participants completed two sets of tasks designed to elicit anger, fear, sadness, happiness, surprise, and disgust. In one task, participants were asked to remember and relive past emotional episodes. Participants also completed a directed facial action task in which they were asked to contract sets of muscles to produce facial expressions associated with each emotion. The authors found that in addition to differentiating positive from negative emotions, combinations of physiological measures could differentiate some negative emotions (eg, fear) from others (eg, anger). Subsequent work suggested that the degree of emotion-specific physiological activity was context-dependent such that the specificity was greatest in real-world emotion induction procedures (Stemmler, 1989), and that different emotion induction procedures appear to elicit different patterns of physiological activity (Zajonc & McIntosh, 1992). Such findings led to a series of meta-analyses conducted by Cacioppo, Gardner, and Berntson (1997) and Cacioppo, Berntson, Larsen, Poehlmann, and Ito (2000) on all published studies comparing the effects of at least two discrete emotions on at least two measures of autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning. Although the results were mixed, these analyses found some evidence of emotion-specific ANS responses. Similarly, a recent systematic review (Stephens, 2010) on the topic of emotion-specific patterns of autonomic functioning found some evidence that different emotions were associated with various patterns of ANS response. While the review found that there were some differences in ANS correlates across emotions, it also found that no basic emotion was entirely unique across the ANS measurements. Subsequent studies have employed multivariate approaches and reported some success in finding emotion-specific patterns of ANS function. For example, Stephens, Christie, and Friedman (2010) had participants view emotion-inducing music and affective films, while recording various ANS measures. Pattern classification analysis found that ANS variables were able to correctly classify predicted emotions at a rate of 44.6%. Using a comparable approach, Kragel and Labar (2013) found that autonomic measures predicted distinct affective states at a rate of 58.0%. While such findings are a clear improvement over previous univariate approaches, they are far from demonstrating discrete emotion-specific patterns of ANS responses.

The explanations for a rapid dispersal of modern humans after 100,000 BP remain enigmatic. Populations of modern humans took new routes – crossing significant topographic and environmental barriers, including making major sea crossings, and moving into and through risky and difficult environments. Neither population increase nor ecological changes provide an adequate explanation for a pattern of rapid movement, including leaping into new regions (saltation events). Here it is argued that the structural dynamics of emotionally complex collaboration and in depth moral commitments generates regular expulsion events of founding populations. These expulsion events provide an explanation for the as yet elusive element to dispersal. Alongside cognitive and cultural complexity we should recognise the influence of emerging emotional complexity on significant behavioural changes in the Palaeolithic.

Emotional expressions have endured as a topic of profound scientific interest for over a century, in part due to Darwin’s classic volume, The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Since its publication, there has been a strong, spirited debate over the origin, nature, and function of emotional expressions. In this article, I consider two basic questions: What did Darwin really write about emotional expressions, and how well does his account match the modern, conventional, “basic emotion” account? And does the scientific evidence specifically support the modern account of Darwin’s view, or are there alternative hypotheses that provide good (or even better) interpretations for the data at hand? I discuss the various ways that Darwin might be correct (and incorrect) about how emotions and their manifestations have been sculpted by natural selection.

The communicative theory of emotions postulates that emotions are communications both within the brain and between individuals. Basic emotions owe their evolutionary origins to social mammals, and they enable human beings to use repertoires of mental resources appropriate to recurring and distinctive kinds of events. These emotions also enable them to cooperate with other individuals, to compete with them, and to disengage from them. The human system of emotions has also grafted onto basic emotions propositional contents about the cause of the emotion, the self, and other matters. Complex emotions always contain such contents, whereas basic emotions can be experienced without them. This article explains the role of basic emotions in social relationships, their effects on reasoning, and their pathology in psychological illness, such as depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Emotions suffuse much of the language employed by students of animal behavior--from "social bonding" to "alarm calls"--yet are carefully avoided as an explicit topic in scientific discourse. Given the increasing interest in human emotional intelligence and the explicit attention in neuroscience to the emotions, both human and nonhuman, the taboo that has reigned for so long in animal behavior research seems outdated. The present review seeks to recall the history of our field in which emotions and instincts were mentioned in the same breath and in which neither psychologists nor biologists felt that animal emotions were off limits. One of the tenets supporting a renewed interest in this topic is to avoid unanswerable questions and to view emotions as mental and bodily states that potentiate behavior appropriate to environmental challenges. Understanding the emotionally deep structure of behavior will be the next frontier in the study of animal behavior.

If emotions such as sympathy are to play the role Oatley envisages for them, they cannot be condescending; they must be based on some real understanding. This is an essay about the difficulty of understanding, and, consequently, the difficulty of sympathy. So, it is a challenge to any philosopher who seeks to understand morality by assigning a strong role to the emotions.

Understanding and recognition of emotions relies on emotion concepts, which are narrative structures (scripts) specifying facial expressions, causes, consequences, label, etc. organized in a temporal and causal order. Scripts and their development are revealed by examining which components better tap which concepts at which ages. This study investigated whether a facial expression or a brief story describing an emotion's cause and consequence was the stronger cue to basic-level and social emotions. Children (N = 120, 4-10 years) freely labelled the emotion implied by faces and, separately, stories for six basic-level emotions (happiness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and contempt) and three social emotions (embarrassment, compassion, and shame). Cause-and-consequence stories were the stronger cue overall, especially for fear, disgust, and social emotions. Faces were the stronger cue only for surprise. Younger children assimilated social emotions into basic-level emotion categories (sadness and anger); older children differentiated them. Differentiation occurred earlier for stories than for faces. Language: en

In the late 1860s and early 1870s, Darwin had corresponded with the French physician and physiologist, G. B. A. Duchenne, regarding Duchenne's experimental manipulation of human facial expression of emotion, by applying Galvanic electrical stimulation directly to facial muscles. Duchenne had produced a set of over 60 photographic plates to illustrate his view that there are different muscles in the human face that are separately responsible for each individual emotion. Darwin studied this material very carefully and he received permission from Duchenne in 1871 to reproduce several of these images in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). Darwin had doubted Duchenne's view that there were individual muscle groups that mediate the expression of dozens of separable emotions, and he wondered whether there might instead be a fewer set of core emotions that are expressed with great stability worldwide and across cultures. Prompted by his doubts regarding the veracity of Duchenne's model, Darwin conducted what may have been the first-ever single-blind study of the recognition of human facial expression of emotion. This single experiment was a little-known forerunner for an entire modern field of study with contemporary clinical relevance. Moreover, his specific question about cross-cultural recognition of the cardinal emotions in faces is a topic that is being actively studied (in the twenty-first century) with the hope of developing novel biomarkers to aid the discovery of new therapies for the treatment of schizophrenia, autism, and other neuropsychiatric diseases.

This study endeavours to define evolutionary perspectives of emotions and mood on biological evolutionary platform. Emotions and Mood are two separate entities of the mental apparatus. 'Mood' is the energy level of the mind at a given particular moment, whereas 'emotion' is a specific sensation or feeling in the mind that provides directional drive to the other faculties of the mind – memory, intelligence, and physical activities – for their actions to be performed to pursue a specific goal. Present study supports that every emotion has been developed individually in the course of biological evolution, and they all have been evolved to maintain the survival needs. According to ‘Emotion Model’ posited by Das, each emotion is distinct and different with a specific survival role and physiologically can be qualitatively and quantitatively determined on different emotion scales. So there is no such existence of as such primary and secondary emotions. Furthermore, each emotion has some certain expressing habits, which both are suited for adapting with the emotion provoking situations and are used for inter-communication purposes. This study also clarifies how evolution of emotions has been an important tool in sociobiology maintaining the bridge between Darwin's evolution theory and Hamilton’s inclusive fitness theory, and has become responsible for entire social evolution.

Darwin's emotional life has been a preoccupation of biographers and popularizers, while his research on emotional expression has been of keen interest to anthropologists and psychologists. Much can be gained, however, by looking at Darwin's emotions from both sides, by examining the relationship between his emotional experience and his scientific study of emotion. Darwin developed various techniques for distancing himself from his objects of study and for extracting emotional “objects” from feeling subjects. In order to investigate emotions scientifically, his own emotional life, his feelings for others, had to give way—or did it? This question has implications well beyond the life of Darwin, moral implications about the effects of scientific discipline on those who practice it and on the animals and people subjected to it. This dual approach to Darwin's emotions also allows us to address a conundrum of recent histories of “objectivity”—namely, the status of the scientific self as a feeling subject.

In this article, the basic sociological approaches to theorizing human emotions are reviewed. In broad strokes, theorizing can be grouped into several schools of thought: evolutionary, symbolic interactionist, symbolic interactionist with psychoanalytic elements, interaction ritual, power and status, stratification, and exchange. All of these approaches to theorizing emotions have generated useful insights into the dynamics of emotions. There remain, however, unresolved issues in sociological approaches to emotions, including: the nature of emotions, the degree to which emotions are hard-wired neurological or socially constructed, the relevance of analyzing the biology and evolution of emotions, the relationship between cognition and emotions, the number of distinctive emotional states produced by humans, and the relationship between emotions and rationality.

While facial expressions of basic emotions are universal, such expressions are also influenced by display rules that control expressive behaviors across various situations. The present study examined the effects of context and gender on facial expressions of emotions. A total of 289 college students in Okinawa prefecture (143 men and 146 women) participated in this study and answered a questionnaire on the facial expressions of emotions in four conditions of social contexts. These situations were as follows: being alone, interacting with a close friend and feeling emotions toward the friend, interacting with a close friend and feeling emotions toward an event or someone other than the friend, and public situations. The results indicated that basic emotions could be classified into three categories based on patterns of expression across four situations: happiness and surprise, anger, fear, and disgust, and finally, sadness. It was also found that women generally expressed emotions more than men did, while women expressed less anger and disgust toward their close friends than men did. These results are further discussed from the viewpoint of the effects of emotional expression on interpersonal relationships and gender stereotypes regarding emotional expressions.

Human communication of emotions is achieved through both facial and vocal information. The purpose of this study is to investigate the dominant sensory modality in recognition of emotions to the multi-modal expression. In Experiment 1, expressions of happiness, surprise, sadness, or aversion was presented vocally, facially, or in both modalities through the expression of an interjectory word “eh”. Participants were required to judge the emotion that was expressed. In Experiment 2, recognition of conflicted emotions between modalities was investigated by combining different emotions between facial and vocal expression. Results of the two experiments indicated that the observers predominantly recognized happiness and surprise that was expressed facially rather than vocally. Furthermore, the expression of happiness was often mistaken as surprise, and the expression of sadness was often mistaken as aversion. Importantly, however, the reverse of these mistakes was little observed. Such the asymmetries of confusion were consistently obtained in every modality including bimodal presentations. This evidence is suggestive that an amodal processing system exists in multi-modal recognition of emotions.

Humans appeared on Earth as a unique biological species with two capacities, which represent specific constituents of human nature: to experience emotions, the driving engines of life, consciously as feelings, either painful or pleasurable; and to manufacture artifacts. Feelings modified evolution of emotions in a runaway manner and made humans hedonotactic beings that aim at nullifying suffering and crave for pleasure. Humans became hyperemotional, hypersocial, and mythophilic animals. Artifaction, hand in hand with hedonotaxis, has launched cumulative cultural evolution, which has been generating ever more complex and pleasing artifacts. Humans have evolved from animal artifaciens into animal artifactus—they themselves becoming artifacts. Runaway of emotional evolution notwithstanding, the human capacity to reason has not undergone a parallel runaway path. There have been the artifacts themselves that set up their runaway evolution, gradually acquiring artificial intelligence and eventually heading toward their independence and their superior rationality that would exceed the constrained rationality of humans. Culture has dramatically enhanced the rate of dissipation of energy gradients. Consequently, human evolution has newly turned into paravolution: random drifts and explosions in multivariable space, processes too fast to permit natural selection, uncontrolled and uncontrollable. Extrapolation from the speeding up of cultural evolution suggests that humanity will reach the Civilization Singularity in the middle of the twenty-first century, a time point at which the rate of changes, and hence their unpredictability and uncontrollability by humans, will converge to infinity. The human species has entered the ultimate age of its evolution, in which the exuberance and splendour of feats mediated by artifacts may be metaphorically likened to fireworks.

The scientific study of emotional expression began with studies of facial expression in the nineteenth century. Studying these expressions has been an important site for disputes over the existence of a universal human nature and disputes about whether emotions are naturally divided into a manageable number of discrete kinds with innate patterns of behavior evolved by natural selection. A more recent dispute concerns the extent to which facial expressions are voluntary, performative strategies for social gain, as opposed to involuntary expressions of subjective feeling.