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Contains fulltext : 291476.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Creative thinking is an important aspect of education. However, students differ widely in their ability to think creatively. Working memory might explain these differences. Therefore, this study focuses on how different aspects of WM can explain differences in divergent thinking, both separately and conjointly. To do so, latent profile analysis was used. Working memory profiles of 561 primary school students (Mage = 10.10 years) were investigated in relation to divergent thinking and as a moderator of the relationship between divergent thinking and academic achievement. Four profiles were identified: a low verbal - medium visual, a medium verbal-low visual, a medium verbal - medium visual, and a high verbal - high visual profile. Visual divergent thinking scores differed between three of the profiles. Furthermore, these profiles were analyzed as a moderator in the relationship between divergent thinking and academic achievement, given the inconsistent relationships found between the two in previous research. Working memory profiles did not moderate the relationship between divergent thinking and academic achievement. Verbal divergent thinking was related to mathematics and visual divergent thinking to reading comprehension. We discuss the need for educators to be aware of differences between children in working memory. 07 maart 2023 17 p.

Contains fulltext : 293699.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) This intervention study aimed to identify how creative thinking can be supported in geometry education. Fifth-graders received five geometry lessons that incorporated divergent and convergent thinking. Children were assigned to a condition with either no creative thinking support (n = 60), support for divergent thinking (partial support; n = 55) or support for divergent and convergent thinking (full support; n = 59). Divergent thinking was assessed by a multiple-solution task and scored in terms of fluency, flexibility and originality. Convergent thinking was assessed by an idea evaluation task. Repeated measures MANOVA showed that different aspects of divergent thinking (i.e., fluency, flexibility and originality) benefited from different types of support. Students’ fluency scores improved in the full support condition, but decreased in the other two conditions. A reverse pattern was found for flexibility and originality, which decreased in the full support condition but increased in the other conditions. No time and condition effects were found for convergent thinking. In all conditions, there was a non-significant increase in geometry scores. However, geometry performance differed between conditions, and was lower (across pretest and posttest) in the full support condition than in the no support and partial support conditions. These results provide some initial evidence that divergent thinking can be promoted in geometry education. Convergent thinking, on the other hand, might be more difficult to support effectively. As different types of support seem to affect different aspects of divergent thinking, teachers might consider adapting support to the specific task or individual needs of children. 14 p.

Contains fulltext : 291005.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) This study investigated the development of divergent thinking (DT) in early childhood. We followed 107 4-year-olds for 1.5 years. Children’s DT was assessed with the Alternative Uses Task (AUT) every 6 months, four times in total. Within the AUT, children were asked to generate unusual uses of common objects while explaining how they came up with these uses. Based on the generated uses, two product measures were computed: fluency and originality. We also applied process measures to gain insight into the thinking processes children used to come up with uses. Based on the coded data of children’s verbal explanations of how they generated uses, two process measures were computed: memory retrieval (retrieving uses from episodic and semantic long-term memory) and mental operations (performing mental operations on the object to generate a use). The results revealed substantial growth in fluency and originality with age. The frequencies of occurrence of both memory retrieval and mental operations also increased with age. In line with previous findings, this longitudinal study shows that creativity develops throughout early childhood. Moreover, this study adds to the current knowledge base by providing researchers a first glance at the development of thinking processes underlying DT in this age range. 01 maart 2023 19 p.

Contains fulltext : 236005.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Number sense and working memory contribute to mathematical development throughout primary school. However, it is still unclear how the contributions of each of these predictors may change across development and whether the cognitive contribution is the same for children with and without mathematical difficulties. The aim of the two studies in this paper was to shed light on these topics. In a cross-sectional design, a typically developing group of children (study 1; N = 459, Grades 1-4) and a group with mathematical difficulties (study 2; N = 61, Grades 4–6) completed a battery of number sense and working memory tests, as well as a measure of arithmetic competence. Results of study 1 indicated that number sense was important in first grade, while working memory gained importance in second grade, before predictive value of both predictors waned. Number sense and working memory supported mathematics development independently from one another from Grade 1. Analysis of task demands showed that typically developing children rely on comprehension and visualization of quantity-to-number associations in early development. Later in development, pupils rely on comparing larger numerals and working memory until automatization. Children with mathematical difficulties were less able to employ number sense during mathematical operations, and thus might remain dependent on their working memory resources during arithmetic tasks. This suggests that children with mathematical difficulties need aid to employ working memory for mathematics from an early age to be able to automatize mathematical abilities later in development. 28 p.

Contains fulltext : 226125.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) Gifted students who experienced grade-based acceleration in primary or secondary education have to meet the challenges of adjusting to university at a younger age than students who did not accelerate. This systematic review critically evaluates the research on social-emotional characteristics and adjustment of these gifted accelerated university students. Based on a review of 22 studies, we may conclude that accelerated students did not differ very much in domains of social–emotional characteristics from their nonaccelerated gifted and nongifted peers. Factors that facilitated adjustment and well-being were cheerfulness, resilience, self-efficacy, a positive self-concept, high prior academic achievement, and supportive family environment. Furthermore, it was found that studies were incomplete in reporting the previous acceleration experiences of the students and that research on students who individually accelerated by 1 or 2 years was scarce. Future research should include individually accelerated students, previous acceleration experiences, gender differences, and comparison groups. 23 p.

Contains fulltext : 237273.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Several cognitive deficits have been suggested to induce mathematical learning difficulties (MLD), but it is unclear whether the cognitive profile for all children with MLD is the same and to what extent it differs from typically developing (TD) children. This study investigated whether such a profile could be distinguished when cognitive skills and math performance are compared between TD children and children with MLD. This was accomplished by employing two-way repeated-measures analyses of covariance in 276 10-year-old participants (60 with MLD) from fourth and fifth grades. In addition, we investigated whether more restrictive selection criteria for MLD result in different mathematical and cognitive profiles by means of independent-samples t tests. Results revealed that cognitive mechanisms for math development are mostly similar for children with MLD and TD children and that variability in sample selection criteria did not produce different mathematical or cognitive profiles. To conclude, the cognitive mechanisms for math development are broadly similar for children with MLD and their TD counterparts even when different MLD samples were selected. This strengthens our idea that MLD can be defined as the worst performance on a continuous scale rather than as a discrete disorder. 17 p.

Contains fulltext : 247954.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) This paper argues why children with Mathematical Learning Disabilities (MLD) do not form a unitary group. Instead, they should be regarded as individuals with unique profiles of strengths and weaknesses that explain their mathematical difficulties. To build this argument, we shortly recapitulate the research on MLD, which has mainly been focused on characterizing the group of children with MLD-as compared to control groups. However, these general characteristics are not applicable to all children with MLD. Furthermore, attempts to define separate, relevant subgroups merely failed. Based on some recent studies, we show how individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses might help in understanding the specific mathematical difficulties of a child. We propose a new multidimensional framework of MLD, in which both strengths and weaknesses are recognized. We argue that both research and practice are in need of further research that takes individual differences into account. 15 p.

Contains fulltext : 237085.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Background: Creativity requires both divergent and convergent thinking. Previous research established that divergent thinking relates to mathematics performance, but generally ignored the role of convergent thinking and, hence, leaves it unclear how both might interact when children work on mathematical tasks. This study addressed this paucity in the research literature, with the goal of improving our understanding of the role of creative thinking in primary school mathematics. Aims: This study examined how divergent and convergent thinking contribute to mathematics performance, both directly and jointly, on single- and multiple-solution tasks. Sample The study was conducted with 229 Dutch fifth graders of 12 primary schools. Method Divergent and convergent thinking were measured with a visual and verbal task. Path analysis was used including verbal and visual divergent and convergent thinking tasks in relation to single- and multiple-solution mathematics task performance. Working memory was included as a covariate. Results: Verbal convergent thinking positively predicted single- and multiple-solution task performance. Verbal divergent and convergent thinking interacted in relation to single-solution task performance, while visual divergent and convergent thinking interacted in relation to multiple-solution task performance. Conclusions: Children’s mathematics performance mainly relies on convergent thinking. The role of divergent thinking is twofold: it complements convergent thinking on multiple-solution tasks and compensates convergent thinking on single-solution tasks. 18 p.

Accumulating evidence from human-based research has highlighted that the prevalent one-size-fits-all approach for neural and behavioral interventions is inefficient. This approach can benefit one individual, but be ineffective or even detrimental for another. Studying the efficacy of the large range of different parameters for different individuals is costly, time-consuming and requires a large sample size that makes such research impractical and hinders effective interventions. Here an active machine learning technique is presented across participants—personalized Bayesian optimization (pBO)—that searches available parameter combinations to optimize an intervention as a function of an individual’s ability. This novel technique was utilized to identify transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) frequency and current strength combinations most likely to improve arithmetic performance, based on a subject’s baseline arithmetic abilities. The pBO was performed across all subjects tested, building a model of subject performance, capable of recommending parameters for future subjects based on their baseline arithmetic ability. pBO successfully searches, learns, and recommends parameters for an effective neurointervention as supported by behavioral, simulation, and neural data. The application of pBO in human-based research opens up new avenues for personalized and more effective interventions, as well as discoveries of protocols for treatment and translation to other clinical and non-clinical domains., Author summary The common one-size-fits-all approach used in biological and behavioral research has shown to be inefficient. This is especially the case in the field of brain stimulation, where many different combinations of stimulation parameters (i.e., frequency and current strength of the applied current) can be used for restorative or enhancement purposes, in clinical and non-clinical populations, respectively. Even intervention protocols that have reported to be effective for certain individuals can be detrimental for others. Here we present an active machine learning method, personalized Bayesian optimization (pBO) that successfully searches, learns, and recommends neurostimulation parameters across individuals. Based on an individual’s baseline cognitive ability, the pBO identifies specific combinations of transcranial alternating current stimulation parameters, which are most likely to improve cognitive performance, in which case arithmetic problem solving. This timely approach provides a possible solution for the pressing need for personalization in different disciplines including medicine, psychology, and education.

Accumulating evidence from human-based research has highlighted that the prevalent one-size-fits-all approach for neural and behavioral interventions is inefficient. This approach can benefit one individual, but be ineffective or even detrimental for another. Studying the efficacy of the large range of different parameters for different individuals is costly, time-consuming and requires a large sample size that makes such research impractical and hinders effective interventions. Here an active machine learning technique is presented across participants—personalized Bayesian optimization (pBO)—that searches available parameter combinations to optimize an intervention as a function of an individual’s ability. This novel technique was utilized to identify transcranial alternating current stimulation frequency and current strength combinations most likely to improve arithmetic performance, based on a subject’s baseline arithmetic abilities. The pBO was performed across all subjects tested, building a model of subject performance, capable of recommending parameters for future subjects based on their baseline arithmetic ability. pBO successfully searches, learns, and recommends parameters for an effective neurointervention as supported by behavioral, stimulation, and neural data. The application of pBO in human-based research opens up new avenues for personalized and more effective interventions, as well as discoveries of protocols for treatment and translation to other clinical and non-clinical domains.

Contains fulltext : 249540.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) The Remote Associates Test (RAT) is increasingly being used as a measure of convergent thinking, one of the pillars of creative problem solving. As creativity is gaining momentum in Dutch elementary education, there is a growing need for a Dutch version of the RAT suitable for children. We therefore developed a child-appropriate 10-item RAT and examined its psychometric properties in a study with 531 Dutch fifth graders (Mage = 10.35, 52% boys). Results showed that the items were internally consistent (alpha = .73) and accorded with a 1PL-logistic IRT model. Item difficulty ranged from -0.82 (easy) to 1.49 (hard), item discrimination was 1.19 and there were very few signs of differential item functioning based on children's gender, socioeconomic status and language proficiency. However, as strong validity-supporting evidence was lacking, a second study was conducted with 202 fourth, fifth and sixth graders (Mage = 10.82, 46% boys). Internal consistency and item properties were essentially equivalent to Study 1. Validity of the RAT was supported by significant correlations with scores on other convergent thinking tests (.39

Contains fulltext : 219510.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) In this study, we explored the structure of pupils' creativity in primary education following the Amusement Park Theory, by investigating undiscovered linkages between the domains of writing, mathematics, and drawing. More specifically, we examined: (a) whether some domains and general thematic areas are more closely related to each other than to others, (b) whether literacy and mathematical ability are specific underlying traits of creativity in writing and mathematics, respectively, and (c) whether intelligence and divergent thinking are related to creativity in all domains. The sample consisted of 331 Dutch 4th grade pupils. For each research question, a model was analyzed using structural equation modeling. We found creativity in mathematics and creativity in writing to be most similar, followed by creativity in mathematics and creativity in drawing, with creativity in writing and creativity in drawing being least similar. Additionally, we found evidence for several underlying traits (i.e., literacy ability and mathematical ability) and initial requirements of creativity (i.e., intelligence and divergent thinking), none of which were important for creativity in only one domain, and of which only intelligence was important for creativity in all domains. Herewith, our study provides insights regarding the complexity of the structure of creativity in primary education. 14 p.

Contains fulltext : 219931.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Background: Profiles of mathematical learning disability (MLD) have been conceptualized in the literature, but empirical evidence to support them based on academic and cognitive characteristics is lacking. Aims: We examined whether profiles of mathematics performance can empirically be identified and whether the identified profiles also differ in underlying cognitive skills. Methods and Procedures: Latent profile analysis in 281 fourth-graders. Basic arithmetic and advanced mathematics were used to identify profiles. Cognitive skills were then described for each profile of mathematics performance. Outcomes and Results: Four profiles of mathematics performance were retrieved from the data, including one general low-achieving profile. Additional profiles of MLD were not found, possibly because individual variation was substantial. Conclusions: and Implications It is highly important to understand children's mathematics performance from an individual perspective, rather than by averaging these children over subgroups. These new insights can be used to better tend to the specific needs of children with mathematical difficulties. 13 p.

Contains fulltext : 203928.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) In this paper, the association between bilingualism and creativity is investigated. In the first part, the results of a literature review are reported. Previous research predominantly found that bilinguals outperform monolinguals on creativity tasks, which was explained by bilinguals' enhanced executive functioning compared to monolinguals, and their experience with multiple cultures. Most previous research has examined the relationship between bilingualism and creativity within a psychological trait framework, which does not take into account that cognitive processes are regarded to be situated‐embodied, meaning that they are influenced by environmental factors, and by a person's perceptions of and actions towards these environmental factors. In the second part, we discuss an alternative approach, in which creativity can be defined as the emerging skill of an individual to discover affordances, to come up with creative ideas and products. Recommendations for future research are discussed as well. 11 p.

This study examined the psychological well-being of gifted primary school children. From a screening sample of 233 children in Grades 1 and 2 across five schools in the Netherlands, 35 children achieving high scores on two out of three selection criteria (teacher nomination, creativity, and nonverbal reasoning ability) and 34 typically developing children were selected to participate in the study. Combinations of grouping criteria were used to create different subsamples within the gifted sample. In general, the differences in well-being between the gifted and the comparison group were relatively small, although the gifted children experienced lower self-worth and social acceptance. In contrast, within the sample of gifted children, some differences were found between selected subgroups. Highly creative gifted children experienced lower feelings of well-being than less creative gifted children, while the reverse was true for children who were nominated by their teacher. Additionally, high-performing gifted children showed higher psychological well-being than underachievers.

In November 2014 we had a wonderful possibility to organize a seminar International Seminar on Mathematical Learning Difficulties with our international colleagues in the field of mathematical learning difficulties. One of the main aims was to provide open lectures for the staff members and students in University of Helsinki. The meeting was supported by the Teachers’ Academy in University of Helsinki. We have collected extensive summaries of the presentations to form this special issue. The summaries are found in both English and Finnish. To sum up the main ideas from the presentations. Firstly, although mathematical learning difficulties are common, we do need more research to be able to understand the possible cognitive precursors or environmental issues affecting learning and causing problems. Secondly, we need more studies about intervention programmes designed to support the mathematical skills development in children having problems in learning mathematics. Thirdly, we also need more studies validating the positive findings in individual studies, using the same assessment and intervention tools.

Recent research has pointed to two possible causes of mathematical (dis-)ability: working memory and number sense, although only few studies have compared the relations between working memory and mathematics and between number sense and mathematics. In this study, both constructs were studied in relation to mathematics in general, and to mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) in particular. The sample consisted of 154 children aged between 6 and 10 years, including 26 children with MLD. Children performing low on either number sense or visual-spatial working memory scored lower on math tests than children without such a weakness. Children with a double weakness scored the lowest. These results confirm the important role of both visual-spatial working memory and number sense in mathematical development.

Contains fulltext : 190859pub.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) The goal of the present study was to test whether the amount of coaching influenced the results of working memory training on both visual and verbal working memory. Additionally, the effects of the working memory training on the amount of progress after specific training in mathematics were evaluated. In this study, 23 children between 9 and 12 years of age with both attentional and mathematical difficulties participated in a working memory training program with a high amount of coaching, while another 25 children received no working memory training. Results of these groups were compared to 21 children who completed the training with a lower amount of coaching. The quality of working memory, as well as mathematic skills, were measured three times using untrained transfer tasks. Bayesian statistics were used to test informative hypotheses. After receiving working memory training, the highly coached group performed better than the group that received less coaching on visual working memory and mathematics, but not on verbal working memory. The highly coached group retained their advantage in mathematics, even though the effect on visual working memory decreased. However, no added effect of working memory training was found on the learning curve during mathematical training. Moreover, the less-coached group was outperformed by the group that did not receive working memory training, both in visual working memory and mathematics. These results suggest that motivation and proper coaching might be crucial for ensuring compliance and effects of working memory training, and that far transfer might be possible. 10 p.

Contains fulltext : 195024.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Recent research suggests that bounded number line tasks, often used to measure number sense, measure proportion estimation instead of pure number estimation. The latter is thought to be measured in recently developed unbounded number line tasks. Children with dyscalculia use less mature strategies on unbounded number lines than typically developing children. In this qualitative study, we explored strategy use in bounded and unbounded number lines in adults with (N = 8) and without dyscalculia (N = 8). Our aim was to gain more detailed insights into strategy use. Differences in accuracy and strategy use between individuals with and without dyscalculia on both number lines may enhance our understanding of the underlying deficits in individuals with dyscalculia. We combined eye-tracking and Cued Retrospective Reporting (CRR) to identify strategies on a detailed level. Strategy use and performance were highly similar in adults with and without dyscalculia on both number lines, which implies that adults with dyscalculia may have partly overcome their deficits in number sense. New strategies and additional steps and tools used to solve number lines were identified, such as the use of the previous target number. We provide gaze patterns and descriptions of strategies that give important first insights into new strategies. These newly defined strategies give a more in-depth view on how individuals approach a number lines task, and these should be taken into account when studying number estimations, especially when using the unbounded number line. 23 p.

Dyscalculia, or mathematics learning disability, has received growing attention in recent years. Working memory and number sense are hypothesized to form important determinants of dyscalculia, but longitudinal assessments of number sense in children with or at-risk for dyscalculia are scarce. The current study investigated number line development in first and second grade, in addition to kindergarten predictors and mathematical proficiency as an outcome. Children (n = 396) could be divided into three latent growth classes: at-risk, catch-up, and typical, based on their number line development. Growth was predicted by kindergarten number sense and verbal working memory. According to the class to which they were assigned, children differed in mathematical proficiency at the end of grade 2. The current study makes an important contribution to the understanding of risk for dyscalculia, showing that children at-risk can be distinguished based on their number line development, and that kindergarten variables are predictive of subsequent development.

In the current study, the factor structure of number sense, or the ability to understand, use, and manipulate numbers, was investigated. Previous analyses yielded little consensus concerning number sense factors, other than a distinction between nonsymbolic and symbolic processing. Furthermore, associations between number sense factors and working memory components were investigated to gain insight into working memory involvement in number sense. A total of 441 Dutch kindergartners took part in the study. The factor structure of number sense and associations with working memory were tested using structural equation modelling. Results indicated that there was a distinction between nonsymbolic and symbolic number processing. Nonsymbolic processing was predicted by central executive performance, and symbolic processing was predicted by both central executive and visuospatial sketchpad performance. This implies that symbolic and nonsymbolic processing are distinguishable at this age, and that working memory involvement in symbolic processing is different from that in nonsymbolic processing.

The present study aims to examine relations between number representations and various sources of individual differences within early stages of development of number representations. The mental number line has been found to develop from a logarithmic to a more linear representation. Sources under investigation are counting skills and executive functions and are set out against mental number lines from 0 to 10 and 0 to 100 in a sample of 4- to 8-year-old children (N = 80). Findings indicate that counting skills, inhibition, and updating are the most important predictors of the shape of the mental number line over and above age-related developmental differences, with number lines from 0 to 10 being linear to a large extent and number lines from 0 to 100 developing from a random pattern toward logarithmic representations. The shape of the mental number line was found to predict scores on the number comparison task only on the smaller-scale comparison task.

The ability to connect numbers and magnitudes is an important prerequisite for math learning, here referred to as number-magnitude skills. It has been proposed that working memory plays an important role in constructing these connections. The aim of the current study was to examine if working memory accounts for constructing these connections by testing whether development of number-magnitude skills can be explained by different components of working memory. Number-magnitude skills and working memory skills of 69 children were assessed at age 5, 5.5 and 6. Different results were found for different components of working memory. Whereas no effects were found for the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop in development of number-magnitude skills, the central executive predicted variance in intercept and slope of number-magnitude skills. The results of this study provide longitudinal evidence for the involvement of general cognitive skills (i.e. working memory) in the development of number-magnitudes connections.

For learning math, non-symbolic quantity skills, symbolic skills and the mapping between number symbols and non-symbolic quantities are all important precursors. Little is known, however, about the interrelated development of these skills. The current study focuses on numerical development by: (a) investigating the structure of non-symbolic, symbolic and mapping skills; and (b) examining the role of non-symbolic versus symbolic numerical skills. Non-symbolic, symbolic and mapping skills of 69 children were assessed at age 4, 5 and 6. Results provided evidence for: (a) the developmental course of all numerical skills showing distinguishable skills at a younger age versus an integration of skills in older children; and (b) the predominant role of symbolic skills versus the subordinate role of non-symbolic skills in the development of mapping skills. Moreover, symbolic and mapping skills were found to be important predictors for math performance. These results provide new insights in early numerical development.

Executive functions (EF) are closely related to math performance. Little is known, however, about the role of EF in numerical magnitude skills (NS), although these skills are widely acknowledged to be important precursors of math learning. The current study focuses on the different roles of updating, shifting, and inhibition in NS. EF and NS were assessed in 47 five-year old children. Furthermore, 21 children were presented with six training sessions aimed at improving NS. Both pre-test and improvement scores were used to investigate the role of EF in NS. Bayesian analyses show that updating is a more important predictor of individual differences in NS than shifting and inhibition. Moreover, children with better updating skills showed more improvement in number line estimation after the training. It is argued that NS rely on the processing of multiple sources of information and, therefore, may be dependent on updating skills.

This study investigated the relationship between working memory and early numeracy. It aimed to explore the possibility of training young children's working memory and to investigate the effects of such training both on working memory and on the specific domain of early numerical skills. Measures of working memory and numeracy were used with low-performing children in kindergarten. A total of 51 five-year-old children received one of two different versions of working memory training or no training at all. The two versions differed in the type of information the children were given to practice: non-numerical or numerical. After a pretest, 4 weeks of intervention took place, followed by a posttest. Children who participated in one of the working memory interventions significantly improved their working memory skills. Furthermore, their early numeracy skills also improved. Differences between both experimental conditions were small.

An increasing number of studies has investigated the latent factor structure of executive functions. Some studies found a three-factor structure of inhibition, shifting, and updating, but others could not replicate this finding. We assumed that the task choices and scoring methods might be responsible for these contradictory findings. Therefore, we selected tasks in which input modality was varied, controlled for baseline speed, and used both speed and accuracy scores, in order to investigate whether a three factor model with inhibition, shifting, and updating could still be replicated. In a group of 211 children, who were tested at the beginning of grade 1, at approximately 6 years of age, and again after 18 months, the best fitting model was not the three-factor model, but instead consisted of an updating factor and a combined inhibition and shifting factor, besides two baseline speed factors (verbal and motor). We argue that these results might indicate that the structural organization of executive functions might be different in children than in adults, but that there might also be an alternative explanation: the distinction in executive functions might not accurately represent cognitive structures but instead be a methodological artefact.

Background. The relationship between executive functions and mathematical skills has been studied extensively, but results are inconclusive, and how this relationship evolves longitudinally is largely unknown. Aim. The aim was to investigate the factor structure of executive functions in inhibition, shifting, and updating; the longitudinal development of executive functions and mathematics; and the relation between them. Sample. A total of 211 children in grade 2 (7-8 years old) from 10 schools in the Netherlands. Method. Children were followed in grade 1 and 2 of primary education. Executive functions and mathematics were measured four times. The test battery contained multiple tasks for each executive function: Animal stroop, local global, and Simon task for inhibition; Animal Shifting, Trail Making Test in Colours, and Sorting Task for shifting; and Digit Span Backwards, Odd One Out, and Keep Track for updating. The factor structure of executive functions was assessed and relations with mathematics were investigated using growth modelling. Results. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that inhibition and shifting could not be distinguished from each other. Updating was a separate factor, and its development was strongly related to mathematical development while inhibition and shifting did not predict mathematics in the presence of the updating factor. Conclusions. The strong relationship between updating and mathematics suggest that updating skills play a key role in the maths learning process. This makes updating a promising target for future intervention studies.