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The large magnetic fields of neutron stars and produced in heavy-ion collisions motivate investigation into the response of strongly-interacting matter to extreme magnetic forces beyond just theoretical interest. Furthermore, the varying temperature T, baryon chemical potential μB, and aforementioned magnetic fields B, of these systems leads to questions concerning the phase structure of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) at large. At low temperatures, superconducting phases become a possible candidate for the ground state in the μB-B plane. This thesis investigates two scenarios where these phases emerge at T=0, with an emphasis on the type-II regime. The first scenario concerns type-II superconductivity at large μB. At asymptotically high baryon density the ground state of QCD is a colour superconductor where gluonic fields can experience a Meissner effect. In the two-flavour pairing (2SC) and colour-flavour locked (CFL) colour-superconducting phases, a small admixture of the photon with a gluon is also expelled which means an applied external magnetic field will experience a slight Meissner effect. Therefore, these phases act as very weak electromagnetic superconductors. Previous works have shown that with massless quarks the type-II 2SC phase is preferred in a certain parameter region where the magnetic defects are domain walls. We introduce corrections for a finite strange quark mass in a Ginzburg-Landau approach, and find that the domain wall defects are replaced by a cascade of multi-winding flux tubes, among other changes to the phase diagram. Due to the emergence of a second colour-superconducting condensate emerging in the core, the magnetic flux is confined into "rings'' where both condensates are depleted, forming pipe-like structures. In the second scenario, μB is low enough such that the presence of nucleons is not yet energetically favourable. It was previously shown that, using Chiral Perturbation Theory and incorporating the chiral anomaly via a Wess-Zumino-Witten term, the ground state in this region above a certain critical magnetic field is a Chiral Soliton Lattice (CSL) of neutral pions - an inhomogeneous phase consisting of a series of domain walls. It was further shown that the CSL becomes unstable to charged pion fluctuations at an even higher second critical field. We argue this instability corresponds to a second order phase transition to a type-II superconducting vortex lattice phase and construct this phase in the chiral limit. We find the type-II vortex lattice phase is preferred and has a non-zero, inhomogeneous baryon number density, leading to a two-dimensional crystalline structure. Preceding the presentation of these works, the μB-B plane of the QCD phase diagram is reviewed such that the results can be placed in the wider context of this plane.

Genetic information is encoded in the long sequence of bases which form DNA, which is replicated during cell division by enzymes known as DNA Polymerases. Polymerases replicate DNA extremely accurately to avoid errors which can cause cell death and diseases such as cancer, although the mechanisms behind these extraordinary fidelities are not well understood. A large conformational change in the protein, in which the “fingers" subdomain closes around an incoming nucleotide, is thought to be implicated in these fidelity mechanisms. Here we present an assay to monitor this conformational change in single polymerase molecules, in real-time. We achieve this using total-internal-reflection-fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to monitor the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) of an intra-protein dye labelled DNA Polymerase I (KF) as it binds to surface-immobilised DNA. Initially, we investigated the polymerase fingers-conformations during the pre-chemistry polymerisation reaction, resolving forward and backward rates which would be challenging to observe using ensemble techniques. These observations confirmed that KF closes rapidly around complementary nucleotide, but we discovered that the reverse step, fingers-opening, is particularly slow relative to chemistry. These finger kinetics act to remove the influence of the reaction rate-limiting step on fidelity, surprising given decades of investigations have focused on the rate-limiting step as the key determinant of fidelity. We also use our kinetic measurements to quantify contributions of different reaction steps to the macroscopic error rate of the polymerase. Subsequently, we developed our assay to investigate the fingers-conformations across the entire DNA polymerisation reaction. We observed single-nucleotide incorporations, and processive DNA polymerisation at high and low nucleotide concentrations, which suggested heterogeneous nucleotide incorporation rates. The observations demonstrated that the post-chemistry slow step that limits processive polymerisation occurs before post-chemistry fingers-opening, or is accounted for by post-chemistry fingers-opening. We observe a correlation in turn-over kinetics and binary complex kinetics, suggesting that turn-over rates could be limited by the intrinsic dynamics of the binary complex, as seen in other protein systems, although more work is needed on this.

The dissertation demonstrates how Calderón's plays critique early modern constructions of masculinity. As no historical studies based on gender theory have been made of Golden Age masculinities, the first two chapters, roughly one third of the dissertation, address this lack. Evidence is drawn from various sources, including manuals written specifically to aid the education of young males, the writings of politicians and arbitristas on the needs of Spanish society, journals of those involved in the administration of justice, and the conclusions of modern historians. Chapter one begins by considering the theoretical justification behind the study of masculinities, placing it in the context of feminist scholarship. It then investigates theoretical explanations for the construction of gender difference using theories derived from anthropology. The plurality of gender constructs is acknowledged and explored by an examination of how different constructions of masculinity have developed at different points in history, often remaining in conflict within the same society. Chapter two moves on to consider how the constructions of gender described in chapter one were maintained in sixteenth century Spain. First an examination of conduct manuals demonstrates the tension between beliefs in gender as social construct and as natural essence in the early modern period. It is then shown how society polices gender boundaries by constructing masculinity in opposition to femininity, youth and homosexuality, with examples of how official and unofficial rules and discourse punished deviance. The chapter concludes with an examination of gender and sexuality in the context of the Golden Age popular theatre. The discussion of Calder6n's work begins in chapter three. Following on from conclusions reached in chapter two regarding the relationship between the theatre and society, theories of the male gaze are seen to be particularly relevant to masculinity and are applied to Dario todo y no dar nada. The analysis shows how the play manipulates identification with the male characters on stage, subverting conventional dramatic structures to present a heroine who resists the male gaze that attempts to establish her as a sexual object. Chapter four develops the concept of the gaze, widening its scope to consider the interplay between gender and ethnicity. The chapter examines relations between the individual male and the group, and the objectification of the other, both male and female. In Amar despues de la muerte, the text is seen to subvert traditional ways in which the Spanish male had looked at Morisco men and women. Religion has traditionally been one of the means by which social constructions have been naturalised and thus justified. Chapter five investigates the association between religion and gender, in particular the connections between female sexuality and the Garden of Eden. El ma.gico prodigioso is seen to reverse conventional expectations. Chapter six studies violence to women, particularly rape, and how male collusion in such violence is dramatised in No hay cosa coma ea/far. The play expresses the voice of the female victim often silenced in society. The ambiguous representation of the male protagonist/ villain foregrounds the fact that traditionally such male violence has been condemned in theory but often condoned in practice. The final chapter explores the representation of masculine insecurity in El medico de su honra using object relations theories. The play is seen as an extreme example of the violence and objectification of women discussed in earlier chapters, as well as a consummate representation of the instability of constructions of masculinities. It is thus an appropriate text with which to conclude the dissertation.

The thesis examines the relationship between evolution and change in local government structures and the development of the public library service, concentrating on the development of that service in Wales. This relationship is examined against governmental enquiries such as the Roberts Report (1959), the Bourdillon Report (1962) and the Redcliffe Maud Report (1969), and the culmination of these enquiries, The Public Libraries and Museums Act, 1964 and The Local Government Act, 1972. Special attention is paid to Section 207 of the Local Government Act which enabled district councils in Wales to apply for library powers. An investigation of the mechanics and rationale of awarding such powers in 1974 and 1984 is based on research of private papers and statistical analysis. Expenditure patterns and service delivery levels of all public library authorities in Wales are examined for the period 1979-1989 to attempt to discover whether counties or districts best match selected criteria of efficiency. The whole topic is brought full circle though an examination of the post-1990 proposals for the re-structuring of local government, concentrating once again on the implications for the public library service in Wales.