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This brief note introduces the conceptual framework of special and general relativity isoclocks and isoframes. Isoclocks and isoframes, as defined herein, can be used to create geometrical maps of space and time (“space-time”) with and without matter embedded. They are useful for having a mental picture of space-time relationships without having to picture 4-dimensional manifolds, which very few students and scientists are able to do. With the aid of the optical lensing definition of curvature as inverse radius, a new gravitational force equation is derived, which also incorporates Einstein’s mass/energy relation in the mx term. Thus, one may see how it is that gravitational force correlates with its time-embedded curvature-squared (Cx2) space in a more accurate formulation than could be envisioned by Newton. This becomes more apparent in high gamma fields, such as found near a black hole horizon. It is hoped that probability theories, such as quantum field theories in curved space-time, might be adaptable to the general relativity isoframe concept introduced herein.

Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC Rh = ct model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman et al. in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.

The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observable galactic redshifts since the beginning of the “cosmic dawn” reionization epoch. A graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z is presented as the FSC prediction of the pending Dark Energy Survey results. In the process, it is discovered that the obvious tension between the SHOES local Hubble constant value and the 2018 Planck Survey and the 2018 Dark Energy Survey global Hubble constant values may be explained by a time-variable, scalar, Hubble parameter acting in accordance with the FSC model.

The famous Dirac sea idea can be resurrected if one replaces the concept of positive and negative matter mass with positive and negative energy. Utilizing this concept, the perpetually spatially-flat matter-generating FSC model can be shown to be a realistic Milne “empty universe” model. Furthermore, this may be why Rh = ct cosmological models like FSC show an excellent statistical fit with the accumulated data of the Supernova Cosmology Project.

The new C.G.S.I.S.A.H. theory of dark matter is used to appropriately classify and quantitate the previously-overlooked cold ground state neutral atomic hydrogen within the intergalactic vacuum. A surprising discovery is demonstrated in the Results section that approximately one-fifth of the cosmic critical density can be attributable to intergalactic cold ground state neutral atomic hydrogen. By subtracting this quantity of the critical density from the dark energy ledger column and adding it to the total matter mass-energy ledger column, our current universe appears to be equally proportioned between total matter mass-energy and dark energy. This has been a longstanding prediction of the Flat Space Cosmology model.

Theory and observations concerning the cosmic reionization epoch are briefly discussed in the context of recent observations attributed to dark matter. A case is made that cold ground state interstellar atomic hydrogen of average density of about one atom per cubic centimeter (1.67 × 10-21 kg·m-3 or 1.67 × 10-24 g·cm-3) appears to be the most likely candidate to explain these observations.

The novel ‘Cold Hydrogen Dark Matter’ (CHDM) theory is summarized in this chapter. Special attention is paid to the fact that current technology prevents us from directly observing extremely cold ground state atomic hydrogen when it is of sufficiently low density in deep space locations. A number of very recent observations in support of this theory are summarized, including cosmic dawn constraints on dark matter. The importance of the Wouthuysen-Field effect as a probable mechanism for CMB decoupling of hydrogen at cosmic dawn is also stressed. This mechanism does not require a non-baryonic dark matter intermediary. Several predictions for this theory are made for the coming decade of observations and simulations.

We emphasize the point that, standard model of cosmology is basically a model of classical general relativity and it seems inevitable to have a revision with reference to quantum model of cosmology. Utmost important point to be noted is that, ‘Spin’ is a basic property of quantum mechanics and ‘rotation’ is a very common experience. In this context, we propose five assumptions in line with Planck mass as the baby universe. We appeal that, 1) Universe can be modeled as a time-reversed black hole (a white hole) with rotation and light speed expansion, and 2) ‘Light speed expanding cosmic space’ can be called as ‘Flat space’. With reference to light speed expansion, if one is willing to re-define cosmic red shift as [z/(1+z)], without considering Lambda cosmology model of matter density fractions, light travel distances can be reproduced with a marginal error of +8.6% at z =1.2, (i.e. traditional light travel distance is 8.6% higher than our estimate), 0% at z = 11.5 and -5.5% at z = 1200.( i.e. traditional light travel distance is 5.5% lower than our estimate). Advantages of our model are, 1) A quantum model of cosmology can be developed with unification of general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. 2) Tension in estimating the current Hubble parameter can be eliminated via scaled Hawking’s black hole temperature formula with great confidence. 3) Galactic dark matter and visible matter can be studied in a unified manner. 4) Galactic light travel distances can be estimated very easily without matter density fractions. 5) Big Bang and Inflation like non-general relativistic concepts can be relinquished with further study.

With reference to known galactic rotation speeds and previous publications on our light-speed expanding Flat Space Cosmology model, a toy model variation is presented herein for the purpose of exploring possible time-dependent relationships between galactic dark matter, visible matter, total matter, redshift, radius and angular velocity. The result of this exploration, in the form of graphs and tables, provides for remarkable correlations with current galactic observations and perhaps moves us closer to understanding the scalar nature and influence of dark matter and Lambda on the expanding universe. With reference to light speed expansion, if one is willing to re-define cosmic red shift as [z/(1+z)], without considering Lambda cosmology inputs, light travel distances can be reproduced with a marginal error of +8.6% at z =1.2, (i.e. traditional light travel distance is 8.6% higher than our estimate), 0% at z = 11.5 and -5.5% at z = 1200.( i.e. traditional light travel distance is 5.5% lower than our estimate).

Realistic FLRW cosmic coasting models which contain matter now appear to be a reasonable alternative in explaining the accumulated Supernova Cosmology Project data since 1998. In sharp contrast to the unrealistic original classic Milne universe, which was entirely devoid of matter, these modified Milne-type models containing matter, often referred to as realistic linear Rh = ct models, have rapidly become the primary competition with standard cosmology. This paper compares the expected relative luminosity distances and relative angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within these two competing models. A simple ratio formula is derived, which explains how expected luminosity distances and angular diameter distances for given magnitudes of redshift within a realistic Milne-type cosmic expansion could create the illusion (for standard model proponents) of cosmic acceleration where none exists.

There have been a number of observational surprises with respect to galactic dark matter-to-visible matter ratios. These surprises confirm our continued lack of understanding of the fundamental nature of dark matter. Because of their apparent close ties with galactic gravitational entropy, at least four recent observations appear to provide the first evidence in support of Verlinde’s theory of gravity, dark energy and dark matter as emergent properties. They also appear to correlate with Roger Penrose’s gravitational entropy concept, as well as entropy defined in the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model. Given the observational support, two different testable versions of a “Dark Matter Index” (DMI) are introduced in this paper, and its utility is discussed in terms of potentially achieving a better understanding of the fundamental nature of dark matter.

Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density ρ (i.e., p=ρ). Although general relativity stipulates the additional condition of proportionality between the vacuum gravitational field and (ρ+3p), the equation of state for the cosmic vacuum must fulfill both relativistic and quantum stipulations. This paper fully integrates Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term, with interesting implications for the nature of dark energy, cosmic entropy and the entropic arrow of time. The FSC vacuum energy density is shown to be equal to the cosmic fluid bulk modulus at all times, thus meeting the quantum theory stipulation of (p=ρ). To date, FSC is the only viable dark energy cosmological model which has fully-integrated general relativity and quantum features.

Following recent Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) observations of global spatial flatness, only two types of viable cosmological models remain: inflationary models which almost instantaneously attain cosmic flatness following the Big Bang; and non-inflationary models which are spatially flat from inception. Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) is the latter type of cosmological model by virtue of assumptions corresponding to the Hawking-Penrose conjecture that a universe expanding from a singularity could be modeled like a time-reversed black hole. Since current inflationary models have been criticized for their lack of falsifiability, the numerous falsifiable predictions and key features of the FSC model are herein contrasted with standard inflationary cosmology. For the reasons given, the FSC model is shown to be superior to standard cosmology in the following eleven categories: Predictions Pertaining to Primordial Gravity Waves; Cosmic Dawn Early Surprises; Predicting the Magnitude of CMB Temperature Anisotropy; Predicting the Value of Equation of State Term w; Predicting the Hubble Parameter Value; Quantifiable Entropy and the Entropic Arrow of Time; Clues to the Nature of Gravity, Dark Energy and Dark Matter; The Cosmological Constant Problem; Quantum Cosmology; Dark Matter and Dark Energy Quantitation; Requirements for New Physics.

This paper, in conjunction with recent Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) publications, provides theoretical support for cosmic time being an emergent property of cosmic entropy and temperature. Therefore, if Verlinde’s “emergent gravity” theory is correct, both time and gravity are most fundamentally emergent properties of cosmic thermodynamics. Since emergent properties within complex systems with a huge number of degrees of freedom are often not definable at the smallest scales, these results suggest that quantum time and quantum gravity may be no more definable than consciousness within two connecting neurons. String theorists now struggling to define quantum space-time and quantum gravity should bear this in mind.

The purpose of this paper is to show how the dark matter predictions of FSC differ with respect to the standard cosmology assertion of a universal dark matter-to-visible matter ratio of approximately 5.3-to-1. FSC predicts the correct ratio to be approximately 9-to-1, based primarily on the universal observations of global spatial flatness in the context of general relativity. The FSC Friedmann equations incorporating a Lambda Λ cosmological term clearly indicate that a spatially flat universe must have equality of the positive curvature (matter mass-energy) and negative curvature (dark energy) density components. Thus, FSC predicts that observations of the Milky Way and the nearly co-moving galaxies within 100 million light years will prove the 5.3-to-1 ratio to be incorrect. The most recent galactic and perigalactic observations indicate a range of dark matter-to-visible matter ratios varying from essentially zero (NGC 1052-DF2) to approximately 23-to-1 (Milky Way). The latter ratio is simply astonishing and promises an exciting next few years for astrophysicists and cosmologists. Within the next few years, the mining of huge data bases (especially the Gaia catalogue and Hubble data) will resolve whether standard cosmology will need to change its current claims for the cosmic energy density partition to be more in line with FSC, or whether FSC is falsified. A prediction is that standard cosmology must eventually realize the necessity of resolving the tension between their flatness observations and their assertion of dark energy dominance. The author makes the further prediction that FSC will soon become the new paradigm in cosmology.

Einstein’s equivalence principle allows one to compare the magnitudes of a gravitational acceleration field with the magnitudes of a field of Unruh acceleration temperatures. The validity of such a comparison is demonstrated by using it to derive the effective Hawking black body radiation at a Schwarzschild black hole horizon. One can then extend the black hole thought experiment to a Hawking-Unruh temperature equation expressed in terms of the Schwarzschild radius. This follows an inverse radius law rather than an inverse radius-squared law. Following a brief discussion of current theoretical failures to explain galactic rotation curves, the Unruh acceleration temperature equations are brought together to show how a rotating supermassive black hole galactic system should follow an inverse radius rule of centripetal gravitational force and centripetal acceleration. This result appears to indicate that galactic observations currently attributed to dark matter may in part be attributed to classical Newtonian dynamics superimposed on a relativistic rotating system powered by a supermassive black hole.

The purpose of this paper is to show how one can use the FSC model of gravitational entropy to calculate cosmic radiation temperature anisotropy for any past cosmic time t since the Planck scale. Cosmic entropy follows the Bekenstein-Hawking definition, although in the correct-scaling form of, which scales 60.63 logs of 10 from the Planck scale. In the FSC model, cosmic radiation temperature anisotropy At = (t/to). The derived past anisotropy value can be compared to current co-moving anisotropy defined as unity (to/to). Calculated in this way, current gravitational entropy and temperature anisotropy have maximum values, and the earliest universe has the lowest entropy and temperature anisotropy values. This approach comports with the second law of thermodynamics and the theoretical basis of the Sachs-Wolfe effect, gravitational entropy as defined by Roger Penrose, and Erik Verlinde’s “emergent gravity” theory.

Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) is a mathematical model of universal expansion which has proven to be remarkably accurate in comparison to observations. Temperature scaling is redefined in this paper in terms of a new “Universal Temperature” Tu scale according to Tu = T 2, where T 2 is in K2. This rescaling puts FSC cosmic temperature, time, total matter mass, and Hubble radius on the same scale, covering roughly 60.63 logs of 10 from the Planck scale to the present scale. This paper focuses on the relatively subtle temperature curve differences between the FSC model and standard cosmology. These changes become more pronounced in the early universe. Recent observational studies of the early universe, particularly with respect to the “cosmic dawn” epoch, the first stars and first galaxies, have surprised standard model proponents as to how soon these events have occurred following the Big Bang. This paper suggests that, because the FSC model temperature/time curve is lower at each stage of cosmic time, FSC may actually be a better fit for the timing of these events.

The gravitized vacuum is operationally defined as the vacuum of space sufficiently close to any gravitating massive body, or collection of bodies, such that its gravitational energy field strength and density are observed, or expected, to be greater than that of deep intergalactic space. It is hypothesized that the contributions to gravitational lensing and excess galactic/peri-galactic rotational inertia currently attributed to dark matter could be predictable effects of increased energy density, with corresponding mass effects, of a gravitized vacuum acting in the manner of a near-absolute zero superfluid. This hypothesis should be testable by an earth-based laboratory with the apparatus and procedure described herein.

This paper integrates the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term. The Lambda term within this model scales according to 3H2t/c2 and 3/R2t. Use of the Bekenstein-Hawking definition of closed gravitational system total entropy provides for FSC cosmic parameter definitions in terms of . Cosmic time, radius, total matter mass-energy and vacuum energy in this model scale in exactly the same way as . This analysis opens the way for understanding gravity, dark energy and dark matter as being deeply connected with cosmic entropy. The recent theoretical work of Roger Penrose and Erik Verlinde is discussed in this context. The results of this FSC model analysis dovetail nicely with Verlinde’s work suggesting gravity as being fundamentally an emergent property of cosmic entropy. This emergent-property-of-entropy definition of gravity, if true, would also indicate that gravitational inertia, dark matter and dark energy are simply manifestations of cosmic entropy. Thus, they would likely have no identifiable connection to quantum physics, including the standard particle model.

FSC is shown to be an excellent model of Penrose’s Weyl curvature hypothesis and his concept of gravitational entropy. The assumptions of FSC allow for the minimum entropy at the inception of the cosmic expansion and rigorously define a cosmological arrow of time. This is in sharp contrast to inflationary models, which appear to violate the second law of thermodynamics within the early universe. Furthermore, by virtue of the same physical assumptions applying at any cosmic time t, the perpetually-flat FSC model predicts the degree of scale invariance observed in the CMB anisotropy pattern, without requiring an explosive and exceedingly brief inflationary epoch. Penrose’s concepts, as described in this paper, provide support for the idea that FSC models gravitational entropy and Verlinde’s emergent gravity theory.

This paper briefly discusses existing problems with the theory of general relativity despite remarkable accuracy in most of its applications. The primary focus is on existing problems in the field of cosmology, particularly those pertaining to expectations of global cosmic space-time curvature in the absence of observational proof. The discussion centers on Krogdahl’s recent Lorentz-invariant flat space-time cosmology and its superiority to general relativity with respect to accounting for global cosmic space-time flatness and dark energy observations. The “cosmological constant problem” is briefly addressed as a problem for general relativity with respect to particle physics and quantum field theory. Finally, two very specific validation predictions in favor of Krogdahl’s flat space-time cosmology are made with respect to ongoing studies, including the dark energy survey (DES).

Deriving an acceptable quantum field theory of gravitation from general relativity has eluded some of the best scientific thinkers. It is gradually becoming more apparent that general relativity’s classical assumptions are simply incompatible with quantum mechanics. For instance, simultaneous certainty of the location and momentum of any moving body, regardless of size, is a fundamental feature of general relativity. And yet, special relativity and quantum mechanics (thru Heisenberg’s uncertainty) reject the very notion of simultaneity. Since special relativity is already fully integrated into quantum field theory concerning the other forces of nature, were it possible to remove the confounding smoothly curved space-time fabric of general relativity and replace it in the form of a new and improved Lorentz-invariant (flat space-time) gravitational theory, final unification might well be achievable. This brief review paper further informs the reader as to why Krogdahl’s recent Lorentz-invariant relativity model of gravitation improves on general relativity, thus providing a deeper understanding of black holes, the cosmological flatness problem and dark energy. Most importantly, since the smoothly curved space-time of general relativity may well have been the road block to unification, Krogdahl’s flat space-time model is predicted to lead to an acceptable quantum theory of gravitation (i.e., “quantum gravity”) and unification (i.e., a so-called “theory of everything”).

A heuristic model of universal expansion is presented which uses, as its founding principle, Stephen Hawking’s singularity theorem. All assumptions of this model are intrinsically linked to Hawking’s theorem and its implications with respect to the time-symmetric properties of general relativity. This is believed to be the first mathematical model constructed in such a way, and it is remarkably accurate with respect to current astrophysical observations. This model’s apparent superiority to standard inflationary cosmology is emphasized throughout, including its accurate derivations of the observed Hubble parameter value and CMB anisotropy. The model definition of cosmic entropy not only correlates the observed temperature anisotropy but also may have implications for resolving the cosmological constant problem and the mystery of dark energy. Moreover, the model has a temperature curve which is more favorable for the remarkably early formation of quasars and galaxies. Possible deep connections to Verlinde’s “emergent gravity” theory are also discussed.

The novel ‘Cold Hydrogen Dark Matter’ (CHDM) theory is summarized in this chapter. Special attention is paid to the fact that current technology prevents us from directly observing extremely cold ground state atomic hydrogen when it is of sufficiently low density in deep space locations. A number of very recent observations in support of this theory are summarized, including cosmic dawn constraints on dark matter. The importance of the Wouthuysen-Field effect as a probable mechanism for CMB decoupling of hydrogen at cosmic dawn is also stressed. This mechanism does not require a non-baryonic dark matter intermediary. Several predictions for this theory are made for the coming decade of observations and simulations.

This chapter presents a novel theory of dark matter made plausible by several astronomical observations reported in 2018 and 2019. The author introduced this theory to colleagues invited to the Dark Matter Workshop at the World Science Festival in May of 2019, and its first publication was in a peer-reviewed physics journal in July of 2019.

We present a new model of cosmology which appears to show great promise. Our flat space cosmology model, using only four basic and reasonable assumptions, derives highly accurate Hubble parameter H0, Hubble radius R0 and total mass M0 values for our observable universe. Our model derives a current Hubble parameter of , in excellent agreement with the newly reported (lower limit) results of the 2015 Planck Survey. Remarkably, all of these derivations can be made with only these basic assumptions and the current CMB radiation temperature . The thermodynamic equations we have generated follow Hawking’s black hole temperature formula. We have also derived a variety of other useful cosmological formulae. These include angular velocity and other rotational formulae. A particularly useful hyperbolic equation, , has been derived, which appears to be an excellent fit for the Planck scale as well as the current observable universe scale. Using the flat space Minkowski relativistic formula for Doppler effect, and a formula for staging our cosmological model according to its average mass-energy density at every Hubble time (universal age) in its expansion, a persuasive argument can be made that the observable phenomena attributed to dark energy are actually manifestations of Doppler and gravitational redshift. Finally, a theory of cosmic inflation becomes completely unnecessary because our flat space cosmology model is always at critical density.