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The ventilated improved pit latrine has the potential of meeting the sanitation needs of many households in developing countries and enhance the chances of attaining the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. However, some user adaptations of the technology appear to conflict with conventional design guidelines and may compromise the ventilation rate in the vent pipe. This would negatively affect the odour control function of the technology. This paper seeks to evaluate existing conventional design guidelines that are aimed at controlling odour and fly nuisance in the latrine to highlight their relevance and possible conflicts with existing and emerging user adaptations. It also identifies potential structural modifications that may be adopted to accommodate emerging user preferences without compromising the odour control mechanism. The review shows that, indeed, some construction practices such as provision of windows in multiple sides of the superstructure adversely affect the ventilation rate and could lead to odour problems. However, the effects of some suspected unfavourable user adaptations such as use of closed-top vent caps and ceramic seats with covers have not been investigated. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated the possibility of compensating for the negative effect of some user preferences with favourable environmental conditions such as high wind speed and structural modifications using a mathematical model. However, the existing model fails to account for some key design criteria and needs to be improved to make it useful for a wider application.

This paper explored people’s perceptions on the use of human excreta for biogas generation in Ghana using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). It sought to assess the effect of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control on people’s behavioural intention to use human excreta (HEx) for biogas. Data collection was by questionnaire designed with the TPB constructs and other demographic information, and the analysis was done by structural equation modelling (SEM). The analysis produced two structural models: the standard TPB model and the adjusted model. Based on SEM, this study revealed that the adjusted model provides a useful and effective framework for analysing the interrelationships between socio-demographic variables and the standard TPB constructs than the standard TPB. Therefore, the results show that the effect of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control are all significant and positive. Though all the constructs were significant and positive, participants showed low perceived behavioural control or they perceive low ability of using HEx for biogas. Results revealed an adequate fit for people’s behavioural intentions to use HEx for biogas. The adjusted model, generated by the inclusion of gender and education into the TPB model, provided a useful and effective framework for the interrelationships between socio-demographic variables and the TPB constructs than the standard TPB. Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control significantly influenced intentions to use HEx for biogas. Though perceived behavioural control showed low controllability, subjective norm was a major factor with religion being key on intentions to use HEx for biogas generation. Gender and education had no direct significant influence on intentions, but their effects were mediated through the TPB factors. It was further revealed that knowledge on the benefits of biogas as well as the perceived effect of using human excreta was strong and positive. Interventions aimed at promoting the use of HEx for biogas should address low controllability and that should include government subsidy and financial support as well as education to address stigma and HEx knowledge. The intervention should also bring on board important persons such as religious leaders and persons from relevant institutions to lead more open discussions on HEx use for biogas.

During the past three decades, constructed wetlands have become an integral part of the suite of technologies for removing domestic and industrial wastewater contaminants. The use of constructed wetlands has disproportionately focused on domestic and agricultural wastewaters and storm water runoff and less on oil and gas-related produced water. In this context, the cumulative effect of environmental factors on the treatment/removal efficiency of contaminants in produced water is underserved by research. Therefore, this study assessed the effect of environmental factors (temperature, dissolved oxygen, oxidation–reduction potential, and pH) on contaminant removal efficiency in free water surface flow constructed wetland (FWSFCW) using ordinary least squares regression and experimental data from a waste treatment facility in Ghana. The results showed that environmental factors did not systematically vary across the experimental group and control set-up. Generally, the environmental factors explained relatively far less of the variance in contaminant removal efficiency compared with the plant species (Typha latifolia, Ruellia simplex and Alternanthera philoxeroides). Environmental factors cumulatively explained only 1.3%, 16.4%, 22.6%, and 5.6% of the variance in removal efficiency of BOD, COD, oil and grease, and total coliform bacteria, respectively. Temperature was the most important environmental predictor of the removal of BOD and phosphorus whereas DO was most important for removing nitrates and total coliform bacteria. ORP and pH were the most important predictors of COD, and oil and grease, respectively. These findings underscore the complex relationships among environmental factors and contaminant removal efficiency and the need for contaminant management practices and remedial techniques that address these complexities.

Aims: To characterise wastewater, assess effluent quality and treatment efficiency of 3 existing biogas plants in 3 distinct institutions in Ghana and to provide relevant data necessary to policy makers to inform decision and influence policy. Study Design: Laboratory analyses were conducted on wastewater samples from the University of Cape Coast (UCC), Mfantsipim Senior High School (Mfantsipim) and Ankaful Maximum Security Prisons (Ankaful), between January and April 2018. Methodology: In all, 192 wastewater samples were collected from UCC, Mfantsipim and Ankaful for analyses. Physical, chemical and biological parameters were analysed on raw wastewater and on the effluent. Quality parameters were determined using the protocol outlined in the Standard Methods. Results: The results showed significant differences between effluent quality from UCC, Mfantsipim and Ankaful with most of the quality parameters falling within the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines. However, electrical conductivity (EC), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N), total coliforms (T. coli), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella spp. (salmonella) exceeded the guideline values. The ratio between BOD5/COD was 0.5 and 0.3 for UCC and Ankaful respectively, indicating high biodegradability while Mfantsipim recorded 0.06, indicating low biodegradability. The parameters which had high treatment efficiency for the biogas plants was UCC (TSS 72.22%, total volatile solids (TVS) 78.41%, BOD5 64.22%, COD 63.56%, PO4 61.29%, T. coli 1.9 log reduction, E. coli less than 1 log reduction, salmonella 1.5 log reduction and vibrio cholerae (V. cholerae) 1 log reduction) followed by Mfantsipim (BOD5 70.45%, COD 83.84%, NO3 79.17%, T. coli 1.6 log reduction, E. coli 5 log reduction, salmonella 1.8 log reduction and V. cholerae complete removal), while Ankaful was (TDS 57.7%, TSS 68.17%, TVS 56.33%, BOD5 82.4%, COD 81.13%, T. coli less than 1 log reduction, E. coli less than 1 log reduction, salmonella less than 1 log reduction and V. cholerae 0.96 log reduction). The rest of the parameters exhibited negative and/or low values. The performance analysis of the three biogas plants showed that UCC performs a little better than Ankaful and far better than Mfantsipim in term of treatment efficiency. Conclusion: The performance analysis indicated that the biogas plants were under-performing which could be attributed to poor maintenance, design deficiencies, poor environmental conditions and voluminous in-put loads. These factors impact the treatment efficiency resulting in relatively poor effluent quality which could put the health of the public at great risk. It is therefore recommended that authorities and policy makers formulate appropriate regulations aimed at addressing the potential impact of poor effluent quality discharged into the environment.

Background: For centuries malaria infection remains a public health burden globally as well as in the Sunyani Municipality. This exploratory qualitative study aimed to assess the prospects of environmental management and sanitation (EMS) as a malaria vector control strategy among key stakeholders involved in the prevention and control of malaria in Sunyani Municipality, Ghana. Method: We used an exploratory qualitative study and a designed focus group discussion (FGD) guide (with specific research questions) to solicit opinions and/or views among Malaria Control Focal Persons, Environmental Health Officers (Health Inspectors), and Honourable Assembly Members. Data were collected between December 2019 and February 2020. The responses were analyzed according to the specific research questions. Result: Findings from this study shows that high government support and/or political will by investing in environmental sanitation infrastructure, creating the enabling environment for strict enforcement of environmental sanitation bye-laws by Environmental Health Officers/Health Inspectors, effective and efficient collaboration among key stakeholders and organization of communal labor activities is likely to help reduce the majority of the mosquito breeding sites. Conclusion: The prospects of environmental management and sanitation (EMS) as a vector control strategy, look promisingly very high, pertinent, and workable and a likelihood game changer of winning the fight against malaria due to the residual transmission that is happening outdoors. However, EMS can be employed as a supplementary method to the current core vector control methods if the following conditions and bottlenecks are addressed and in place: (a) Effective collaboration among key stakeholders at all levels; (b) Adequate allocation of funds to the Environmental Health and Sanitation Department; (c) Enactment of robust educational campaigns across all educational levels and via different media; (d) Recognition, empowerment, and adequate resourcing of Environmental Health Officers; (e) Adherence to the building regulations to prevent encroachment of natural wetlands; (f) Revision of fees/fines and prosecution of sanitary offenders; (g) Enactment of an Environmental Sanitation Day (ESD), and establishment of the Environmental Health and Sanitation Fund (EHSF).

Background Knowledge of the relative abundance and biting rates of riverine blackflies (vectors of onchocerciasis) is essential as these entomological indices affect transmission of the disease. However, transmission patterns vary from one ecological zone to another and this may be due to differences in species of blackfly vectors and the climatic conditions in the area. This study investigated the effects of climate variability on the relative abundance and biting rates of blackflies in the Tanfiano community (Nkoranza North District, Bono East Region, Ghana). Such information will help to direct policy on effective timing of the annual mass drug administration of ivermectin in the area. Methods The study employed human landing collections and locally built Esperanza window traps to collect blackflies from March 2018 to February 2019. The relative abundance and biting rates of the Simulium vectors as well as the monthly climatic conditions of the study area were monitored. Correlation analysis and Poisson regression were used to establish the relationships between the variables. Results The relative abundance and biting rates of the Simulium vectors were highest in the drier months of March, April and August, characterized by high temperatures, low humidity, longer hours of sunshine and stronger winds. The rainy months of May, June and July, characterized by low temperatures, high humidity, few hours of sunshine and weaker winds, had relatively low blackfly abundance and biting activity. Correlation analysis showed that only temperature was significantly, positively correlated with the relative abundance of blackflies (r = 0.617, n = 12, P = 0.033) and monthly biting rates (r = 0.612, n = 12, P = 0.034). A model to predict relative abundance and monthly biting rates using climatological variables was developed. Conclusions This study demonstrated that Simulium species in the study area preferred higher temperature, lower humidity and rainfall, more hours of sunshine and relatively stronger winds for survival. It is thus recommended that for the study district and others with similar climatological characteristics, mass drug administration of ivermectin should take place in April and September when the abundance of vectors has begun to decline after peaking.

Evidence abounds that biogas technology has enormous health and environmental benefits, including improvement of community livelihood and health, sanitation, sustainable energy and reduced emissions. In spite of these benefits, intentions to adopt biogas technology arelow among household heads in developing countries, notably Ghana. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of household heads’ intentions to adopt biogas technology, based on the theory of planned behavior. The study adopted an exploratory design and collected data from 394 household heads’ using questionnaires. It was discovered that attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors and independently contributed to predicting household heads’ intentions to adopt biogas technology. Additionally, the study found that, the dynamics of ethnicity and education have a significantly direct effect on household heads’ intentions to adopt biogas technology. The study recommends that respected persons in local communities, using Original Research Articledifferent ethnic dialects, lead public education and awareness creation on the benefits of the use of biogas technology. Besides, government should subsidize the cost of biogas plants installation so as to promote its adoption rate.

Welders are exposed to metal ions or oxides through direct contact at occupational sites or indirectly through uptake from contaminated dust or air. This study was a case-control study designed to assess the levels of some heavy metals and the hematological profile of welders (cases) as compared to nonwelders (controls) from Bibiani Anhwiaso Bekwai District of Ghana, comparatively to determine whether their values are within acceptable international range. A quantitative-based survey using structured questionnaires was used to collect demographic data from purposively selected welders (n = 40) and nonwelders (n = 40) from the study area. Five (5 mL) blood samples were collected from the study participants and analyzed for blood cell count as well as levels of Mn, Fe, Pb, and Zn. There were no significant differences in the Mn, Zn, and Fe levels between the welders and nonwelders ( p = 0.431 , 0.53 vs. 0.23 mg/L, p = 0.05 , 0.41 vs. 0.15, p = 0.886 , 1.82 vs. 1.11). The level of Pb was, however, significantly lower among welders compared to the nonwelders ( p = 0.016 , 0.09 p = 0.365 , 5.16 vs. 4.85 × 109/L). However, the mixed cell fraction was significantly higher among welders compared to nonwelders ( p = 0.027 , 0.34 × 109/L > 0.28 × 109/L). Red blood cell count and indices showed no significant differences between the welders and nonwelders. Hemoglobin levels in welders were, however, higher (14.47 g/dL) but this was not statistically significant compared to their nonwelder counterparts (13.85 g/dL). It was concluded from the study that welders in Bibiani Anhwiaso Bekwai District of the Western Region of Ghana had elevated levels of Pb in their bodies. This was associated with an increase in mixed white blood cell fraction platelets. However, the recorded levels were within the accepted physiological limits suggesting that the heavy metal exposure of welders had no clinically pathological significance.

On-site dry sanitation facilities, although cheaper than wet sanitation systems, suffer from high malodour and insect nuisance as well as poor aesthetics. The high odour deters users from utilizing dry sanitation toilet as an improved facility leading to over 20% open defecation in Sub-Saharan Africa. To address this malodour concern, this study first assessed odour levels, using hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3) as indicators, on two (2) dry sanitation facilities (T1 and T2). The potential of using biomass (sawdust, rice husk, moringa leaves, neem seeds), ash (coconut husk, cocoa husk) or biochar (sawdust, rice husk, bamboo) as biocovers to remove or suppress odour from fresh faecal sludge (FS) over a 12-day period was investigated. Results showed high odour levels, beyond and below the threshold limit for unpleasantness for humans on H2S (peak value: T1 = 3.17 ppm; T2 = 0.22 ppm > 0.05 ppm limit) and NH3 (peak value: T1 = 6.88 ppm; T2 = 3.16 ppm < 30 ppm limit), respectively. The biomasses exhibited low pH (acidic = 5-7) whereas the biochars and ashes had higher pHs (basic = 8-13). Acidic biocovers generally reduced NH3 emission significantly (12.5% to 64.8%) whereas basic biocovers were more effective at H2S emission reduction (80.9% to 96.2%). In terms of H2S and NH3 removal, sawdust biochar was the most effective biocover with odour abatement values of 96.2% and 74.7%, respectively. The results suggest that locally available waste plant-based materials, like sawdust, when converted to biochar can serve as a cost-effective and sustainable way to effectively combat odour-related issues associated with dry sanitation facilities to help stop open defecation.

The objectives of this study were to assess the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) composting potential and to analyse the quality of organic fertilizer produced for agricultural purposes. The waste biodegradation was determined by varying waste feed treatment (2, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, to 4 kg) and control treatment of (2 kg) of heterogeneous mixture of municipal organic solid waste from market, restaurant and households. Each of the setups received equal number of viable larvae (i.e. 2000) which were 5–6 days old. To analyse the nutrient concentration of the compost residues with BSFL, the substrate and final compost were evaluated based on the levels of NPK as well as the C:N ratio. To evaluate the toxic levels of the final compost in terms of heavy metals, the presence and levels of As, Cd, Fe, Pb and Ni were investigated. The analysis showed that there was high percentage increase of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium levels, i.e. 41.2% (SD ± 0.71%), 32.4% (SE ± 0.2%) and 77.1% (SE ± 0.19%), respectively. It was found that the larvae degraded more than half of the total substrate within 2 weeks. The study showed a decrease in heavy metal concentrations after larvae composting. The study revealed that the concentration of NPK increased significantly among the treatment groups. The study further revealed that some of the heavy metals under investigation had reduced to an acceptable level according to the standards of both local and international regulatory bodies.

Faecal sludge (FS) management is pertinent to the achievement of sustainable development goal 6.2 around the world; yet it is constrained by urbanisation challenges, waste management complexities, and defective attitudes. These deny communities of the plausible supply of resources from FS. This paper assesses the perception underpinning the occurrence of nonfaecal matter in FS in Ghana. Primary data were obtained from 400 respondents in four communities in Brong Ahafo and Greater Accra Regions of Ghana, using a structured questionnaire. Data were analysed by using STATA software version 15. Chi-square test and multiple logistic regression were conducted on all independent variables and statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05 . The study identified the following as the most perceived frequently disposed nonfaecal matter into FS: sanitary pads and diapers (38.5%), fabrics/rags (23.2%), toilet rolls (20.8%), razor/shaving sticks (10.3%), and others (7.2%). Gender, state of toilet facility (roof or unroofed), presence of container for collecting other types of waste in the toilet room, and state of container in toilet room either covered or uncovered were the factors found to be significantly associated with the disposal of solid waste (SW) into FS at 95% confidence level. The fear of exposing used sanitary materials for rituals, the use of fabric as an alternative to toilet rolls, and the desire to conceal aborted pregnancies from the public were some of the reasons alluded to the disposal acts. Education and awareness campaigns on proper SW disposal practices, appropriate use of toilet facilities, and the resource potentials of FS were found to be the best way forward to discourage indiscriminate disposal of SW into FS.

Constructed wetlands have been proposed to address the frequency and magnitude of oil and gas-related environmental contamination. The effect of co-variation of hydraulic load and hydraulic retention time on the dynamics of contaminant removal efficiency of heterogeneous plant species was assessed using ordinary least squares regression. The results showed that hydraulic load (HL), hydraulic retention time (HRT) and plant species jointly explain 87%, 79%, 83%, 85% and 66% of the total variance in removal efficiency of conductivity, TDS, BOD, COD, and total coliform bacteria, respectively. The models also explain 86%, 80% and 81% of the variations in removal efficiency of oil and grease, total phosphorus, and nitrate. More than 90% of the explained variance of total coliform removal efficiency is jointly attributable to hydraulic load and retention time. Hydraulic load of 1000 L and retention time of 72 h (1000 L 72 h) recorded optimum removal efficiency for TDS and conductivity. Optimum removal efficiency for BOD, COD and total coliform bacteria were achieved at HL and HRT of 1000 L 72 h, 1000 L 48 h and 1250 L 24 h, respectively. Alternanthera philoxeroides recorded the highest removal efficiency for oil and grease, conductivity and TDS, whereas Ruellia simplex recorded the highest removal efficiency for COD. Typha latifolia had the highest removal efficiency for total phosphorus and nitrate. Plant species suppressed the relationship between HL and HRT (1250 L 48 h, 1500 L 72 h, 1750 L 48 h and 2000 L 48 h) and removal efficiency for conductivity. Similarly, plant species suppressed the relationship between 1000 L 48 h and 1750 48 h and removal efficiency for TDS. These relationships underscore the complex dynamics between optimal contaminant removal efficiency and required hydraulic load, hydraulic retention time and plant species.

On-site sanitation systems, the commonest sanitation technologies in low-income countries, are central to the elimination of open defecation in such countries. Nevertheless, their selection and application in the physical and socio-economic environment of low-income settings could be a complex and challenging task. Poorly designed and constructed facilities could pollute groundwater resources and create nuisances to the user and the general public. Meanwhile, local authorities in these countries often lack the human resource with the requisite technical capacity to analyse situations and recommend appropriate solutions. This calls for guidance in the most crucial technical decisions that affect the safe usage and environmental sustainability of on-site sanitation technologies. This Chapter reviews salient standards and guidelines for the selection of appropriate technologies, prevention of groundwater pollution, control of odor and fly nuisance, structural stability and safety of the latrine user.

The current status of biogas technology in Ghana, a developing country, was explored focusing on factors affecting dissemination of the technology and the associated challenges. Data collection was by personal interview and physical observations, and was conducted between July and October 2017. Non-probabilistic sampling procedures were used to select 61 respondents from 162 users, while 54 digesters were selected from 120 digester sites. The findings revealed that: initial installation and maintenance costs appear high; the needs of most biogas users had not been fully met, thus, they were only partially satisfied with the outcome of the technology; and 21% of the biogas service providers were engineers and 79% from other disciplines (plumbers, masons, carpenters, and graduates from arts, social sciences, business, etc.). These factors affect technology diffusion. In addition, bottlenecks for more intense use of biogas technology that need to be addressed include lack of government subsidies or financial support, poor or unstandardized digester design, lack of gas production, lack of follow-up, lack of maintenance, lack of monitoring, and market value for bio-fertiliser (digestate). It is recommended that financial institutions support individuals and institutions with soft loans to acquire biogas digesters/plants, and that a regulatory body be formed for the activities of biogas service providers in developing countries.

With less than 5% sewerage coverage and abysmal greywater management, Ghana's environment could be highly polluted, especially water resources. The few sewered communities may be guilty of pollution from greywater discharge into stormwater drains. In this study, Asafo, Ghana, was used as a case study to assess greywater characteristics in the major drains in a sewered community. The approach involved desk study reviews and laboratory analysis of greywater samples. The findings showed some inhabitants discharge greywater into neighbourhood drains instead of sewers. Most greywater sources from reviews and sampled drains failed the discharge limits for major contaminants including turbidity (39.4–2,880 NTU), BOD5 (64–700 mg/L), COD (207–2,308 mg/L), TSS (70–4,720 mg/L), TDS (420–2,860 mg/L), nutrients – TKN, NH3-N, NO3−-N, NO2−-N (0–218.5 mg/L), total P and PO43−(1.24–26.18 mg/L), elemental species – Na, K, Mg, etc (0–1.6 mg/L), and microbiological – total and faecal coliforms, and E. coli (2.95–10.4 log CFU/100 ml). High strength greywater accounted for odour emissions where flows stagnated. Greywater characteristics are highly variable but have potential for biological treatment as the BOD5:COD ratios ≥0.5. Ghanaian greywater, including flows from a sewered community, is untreated and polluted, and our environment is unsafe.

The rate of ventilation through the vent pipe of a ventilated improved pit latrine is the main technical factor that determines its efficiency in odour control aside the maintenance and cleaning practices of the users. Even though the factors affecting the ventilation rate have been well researched, they have not been previously related in a mathematical model to quantify the relative effect of the various factors on the ventilation rate. The objective of this paper is to develop such a model that could be used to optimise and predict the ventilation rate as a function of relevant design criteria and weather conditions. The ventilation rates produced by various design modifications in an experimental ventilated improved pit latrine were measured under monitored weather conditions. A linear regression model was used to assess the relative effect of the various design modifications and the elements of weather on the ventilation rate. It was found that the diameter of the vent pipe is the most important factor which accounts for 53% of variations in the ventilation rate, followed by the external wind speed, which accounts for 25% of changes in ventilation. The provision of windows in other sides of the superstructure other than the windward side leads to a reduction of 32% in the ventilation rate and accounts for 9% of the variations in the ventilation rate. A regression model developed in this study could be used to optimise and predict the ventilation rate based on a set of design criteria and meteorological data.

Large dams play an important role in promoting economic and social development in many countries. However, the construction of such dams can have a detrimental effect on the environment. The aim of this study was to investigate perceptions of drinking water quality among inhabitants of selected communities within the Bui Dam environs. With the help of questionnaires, 100 respondents from communities “near to the dam” were randomly selected and interviewed. Their responses were compared with another 100 respondents selected from “far from the dam” communities. These were augmented with in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, and personal observation. Analysis of the results showed that, there were greater proportions (31%) of the participants who lived in “near communities” within the age category 20–25 compared to 19% of their “far communities” counterparts. There were significantly greater proportions of female respondents in the “near to the dam” (57%) compared to respondents in the “far from the dam” communities (52%). The study further showed that the perception of risk of consuming contaminated drinking water was more common among “far from the dam” communities (odds ratio = 4.57). The perception of the quality of water based on some physical properties was investigated as part of our study. Analysis of the results showed that significantly greater proportion of the “far from the dam” communities (35%) perceived their water had an objectionable smell compared to 7% of inhabitants of their other counterparts (p value = 0.001). The study further showed that significantly greater proportion of the study participants in the far from the communities perceived that their water had colour (65%) and they did not drink water from any other source (63%) apart from their stream. The study demonstrated that generally, inhabitants within the study communities perceived the construction of the Bui Power Project has negatively affected their drinking water quality.

The aim of the study was to use of rotary drum composter as a low cost method for the removal of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris Trichiura in faecal sludge compost. Two runs of compost experiment (Run 1 and Run 2) were carried out consecutively. Each Run of composting was done in four different rotary drums at real scale using a mixture of faecal sludge and shredded maize cobs and monitored for 12 weeks. Concentration of Ascaris and Trichuris were measured once a week to understand their behaviour. Temperature, Moisture Content and pH were also measured. High concentrations of Ascaris and Trichuris were present in the initial compost mix of both Runs 1 and 2. The concentration of Ascaris and Trichuris respectively in Run 1 ranged from 65–77 eggs/gTS and 30–41 eggs/gTS. In Run 2, measured concentrations of Ascaris and Trichuris ranged from 77–110 eggs/gTS and 46–52 eggs/gTS. After 84 days of composting faecal sludge, Ascaris was removed by a minimum of 82% and Trichuris by a minimum of 88%. The findings showed that plastic composter with paddles performed better compared with the other experiments. This means that the type of composter have a significant impact on the removal of helminth.

Today’s environment had seen technology taking the center stage in research, and several researches in this area assess the impact of technology on the society and business organizations. This study outlines the impact of computer mediated communication (CMC) on productivity and efficiency in the faecal sludge industry and Sewerage Systems Ghana Limited was used as a case study. Selective sampling technique was used to identify the institution and respondents were randomly selected to undertake the study. A total of 92 respondents were engaged and a questionnaire was administered in order to get the required responds. The study indicates that about 53% of the respondents admitted to the use of emails as medium in communication to be the best medium in attaining high efficiency and productivity, while 28% believed the use of What’s App application would improve the effectiveness and productivity. Some respondents preferred other methods, for example, communicating face to face which they have highlighted is a medium which enhances interpersonal relationships. The use of printed memo and letters as well as the use of the notice boards was also endorsed to have positive consequence on productivity and efficiency. It was noted that the usage of CMC is highly dependent on age and educational background. As the age of the respondents increased, there was decrease in the utility acceptance of CMC and the reverse was noted for educational background. The highly rated and preferred medium of communication based on the study is the most used medium utilized by Sewerage Systems Ghana Ltd. Employing the most preferred medium for communication in the organization is evidenced in the high performance of the staff which is reflective in the overall performance of the plant operations. The application of the CMC and the utilization of the appropriate medium or media in the management of faecal sludge highly aided the productivity and efficiency of personnel as well the overall performance of the plant operations and hence the organization.

The Rehabilitated Mudor sewage treatment plant at James Town was monitored over a period of 4 months (October 2017 to January 2018). This study analyzed the physical, chemical and biological parameters of the raw sewage and the treated effluent from the plant. The result indicates that the total removal efficiencies were 98.8%, 91.2%, 62.8%, 28.6%, 81.7%, 43.6%, 82.5% and 99.6% for BOD, COD, TSS, Nitrate-Nitrogen, Phosphate-Phosphorus, Ammonia-nitrogen, Sulphate and faecal coliform respectively. More than 13 parameters needed to be met according to the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guideline were satisfactorily met whiles ammonia, total suspended solids and phosphate were slightly out of range. From the results obtained, the overall performance of the rehabilitated plant was satisfactory and has seen some improvement with respect to the former recorded performance of the plant. With monitoring operation parameters for waste water plants discharge guidelines becoming stringent over the past years, it could be said that management of the Mudor rehabilitated treatment plant is on the right cause with full scale operation of the plant barely less than a year. Increase in the process steps through rehabilitation resulted in several significant improvements in effluent quality parameters.

Background Onchocerciasis is a neglected tropical disease which is still of immense major public health concern in several areas of Africa and the Americas. The disease manifests either as ocular or as dermal onchocerciasis with several symptoms including itching, nodules, skin thickening, visual impairment and blindness. Ivermectin has been an efficient microfilaricide against the causative agent of the disease (Onchocerca volvulus) but reports from some areas in Africa suggest the development of resistance to this drug. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of onchocerciasis and associated clinical conditions frequently associated with the disease in three endemic communities in Ghana which have been subjected to 18 to 20 rounds of mass drug administration of ivermectin. This was to help determine whether or not onchocerciasis persists in these communities. Methods A cross-sectional study design was adopted. Three communities (Tanfiano, Senya and Kokompe) in the Nkoranza North District of Ghana where mass drug administration of ivermectin had been ongoing for more than two decades were selected for the study. The population was randomly sampled and 114 participants recruited for the study based on the eligibility criteria. The study participants were examined for the presence of parasites and clinical manifestations of onchocerciasis following established protocols. Results The study showed that the prevalence of microfilaria in the Tanfiano, Senya, Kokompe communities were 13.2, 2.4, and 2.9%, with nodule prevalence being 5.3, 4.9 and 14.3% respectively. Females in the study communities had a higher prevalence of microfilaria carriers (5.17%) relative to males (2.44%), but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.2800, unpaired t test). The most frequent clinical manifestation observed in this study among all participants was dermatitis (25.4%), followed by visual impairment & nodules (7.9% each) and then by blindness (4.4%). Conclusion The study showed that despite several years of mass drug administration with ivermectin, infection with onchocerciasis and the commonly associated clinical manifestations of the disease still persist in the study communities. This calls for a greater urgency for research and development aimed at discovering new or repurposed anti-filarial agents which will augment ivermectin if global onchocerciasis eradication targets are to be achieved.

Design of treatment plants for faecal sludge management systems relies on a comprehensive accurate knowledge of FS (faecal sludge) characteristics, but this information is lacking. Developing countries like Ghana, where large proportion of the urban population (Accra) rely on onsite sanitation systems, face a lot of FSM (faecal sludge management) design challenges as a result of lack of a comprehensive study data on physicochemical characteristics of raw faecal sludge after primary dewatering. Achieving a fully operational FSM chain would imply a well understanding of the characteristics of the FS and its dynamics after primary dewatering. A study was carried out to determine the characteristics of faecal sludge brought to the Lavender Hill treatment plant, Accra Metropolis, and environs to ensure the treatability and uses of the products after treatment. The treatment plant receives an average of 150 trucks (1350m3) a day with 58% coming from private homes and 42% from public toilets. Composite samples were made from both public and private toilets facilities. Samples were taken from a reservoir holding faecal sludge from both public and private facilities, examined on daily basis and characterized. The values obtained showed high concentrations of BOD and COD values. The COD: BOD ratios showed that the faecal sludge is not stabilized yet and can be further degraded. The calorific value for the dry sludge was found to be 15.16-15.82 MJ/kg and 16.39–18.31 MJ/kg for the wet sludge. The calorific value of the sludge is adequate enough to be used as potential feedstock for green energy generation. The high concentrations of COD and organic matter of the faecal sludge make it suitable enough for biogas generation. A good correlation (r=0.909,R2=82.6%) between the calorific value and the TVS was found to be CV=0.122TVS+7.44. Heavy metal concentrations were low and satisfied the EPA Ghana guidelines for sludge. Thus products from the treatment can be used for agricultural purposes.

The ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine has the potential to address the challenge of access to improved sanitation in built-up low-income settings. However, its conventional technical design fails to address the needs and preferences of some users. The objective of this paper was to test the technical performance of modified engineering designs of the technology to respond to some preferences of toilet users. The entry of air from multiple windows in the superstructure and installation of insect screens in windows were tested in an experimental VIP latrine. The modified design achieved the recommended ventilation rate of 20 m3/h when a vent pipe diameter of 150 mm was used. The study concludes that adopting a multidirectional airflow design leads to a lower ventilation rate as compared to the conventional design. However, when fitted with the recommended size of vent pipe, this modified design achieves more than twice the recommended ventilation rate with or without an insect screen installed in the windows. Nevertheless, the practice in which 100 mm diameter vent pipes are used with insect screens installed in windows is likely to lead to odour problems due to inadequate ventilation through the vent pipe.

Composting of raw faecal sludge (FS) poses many difficulties due to its high moisture content (MC), high wet bulk density and low carbon to nitrogen ratio. The aim of this study were to (1) examine the suitability of bulking materials (BMs) and (2) investigate the effect of bulking material and mixing ratio on concentration of nutrients during composting of raw FS compost. Raw FS and BMs (wood chips and maize cobs) were sampled from three peri-urban communities. The raw FS showed an initial high MC (73%) which was greater than that required to start a compost process (55–65%). The results showed that the total carbon and nitrogen contents of all the experiments decreased at the end of the composting process. Composted materials at the end of the experiment showed lower concentrations of available phosphorus and potassium in all the experiments than the initial substrate materials. Experimental trial, Maize cob (1:2) is the most preferred due to the fact that it contained more nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and also carbon which are essential nutrients for plant growth and for improving on the soil organic matter content.

The objective assessment of the level of odour in on-site sanitation systems is required when evaluating emerging technology options and maintenance practices. The purpose of this study was to measure the concentrations of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia as surrogates of odour using a portable gas detector, and assess whether the concentrations of the compounds correlate with the perception of users of the facilities. The Aeroqual 500 portable gas detector with hydrogen sulphide and ammonia sensor heads was used to measure the concentrations of the compounds in 88 private and seven communal latrines sampled from a peri-urban community in Ghana. The odour perception of 189 and 165 users of private and communal latrines, respectively, was assessed on an ordinal scale. It was found that the concentrations of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia measured with the gas detector reflected the known variation of odour levels among different technology options and the perceptions of the latrine users. The concentrations of hydrogen sulphide measured in the water closet, ventilated improved pit (VIP) and the simple pit latrines were 0.01, 0.03 and 0.13 ppm, respectively; those of ammonia were undetected for the water closet, and 0.30 and 3.27 ppm for the VIP and simple pit latrines, respectively. The Pearson correlation coefficient between hydrogen sulphide concentrations and user perception of odour (−0.234) was significant at 5 % level (p = 0.022) but that for ammonia was not. The results indicate that a portable hydrogen sulphide detector may be employed to objectively assess the effectiveness of new latrine designs and maintenance practices aimed at reducing odour in latrines.

In this study, downwind odour concentrations from a communal toilet facility were measured by trained human receptors using the plume method over a 10 day period from mid-May to mid-June 2015 over an approximate downwind area of 1000 m2 (about 800 m long and 30 m). Source emission measurements and extensive meteorological data were collected along with the field odor concentration measurements. Modelling of the measurement events at specific receptor locations using the US EPA SCREEN3 model was compared to field odor measurements at the same locations. The study also showed how subjectivity in the use of the human nose in measuring odour strength could be reduced by selecting odour inspectors using the “Standard Procedure for Testing Individual Odour Sensitivity”. Also an odour dispersion model using the US EPA SCREEN3 model was built and simulated and the output of the simulated model compared with the measured data. A paired t-test, t(5) = -1.29, p = 0.902 (p > 0.05), showed that there was no statistically significant difference between simulated model output and measured data, hence the possible of using odour dispersion models improved operation of a communal toilet in relation to odour impact.

The flow rate of rivers are affected when modifications are made for the benefit of mankind. Some man-made alterations carried out include dam construction. The aim of this study was to investigate the health impact of the Bui dam with respect to the prevalence and awareness level of schistosomiasis in a typical damming environment. The study was conducted in 4 riparian communities within the dam catchment area. A cross-sectional study design was employed to interview 350 individuals. Urine and stool samples were also collected from 386 participants. Results of the study showed that, knowledge of schistosomiasis was significantly greater in close communities (99.47%) than their far counterparts (50.29%) (p > 0.001; OR = 172). Schistosomiasis infection rate in the close communities (32.57%) were significantly greater in far communities (7.23%; p ≤ 0.0001). The overall prevalence of 82 (21.1%) was recorded for Schistosoma haematobium and 64 (16.1%) for Schistosoma mansoni. A significantly high prevalence of S. haematobium (43.3%) was found in the age group 15–24 with no prevalence reported for age group 5–9 (Close communities) (p = 0.012). When the same age group was further examined for S. mansonii, group 5–9 recorded a prevalence of 0% with age group 10–14 showing a high prevalence of 26.1% (p = 0.047). From the study, it was concluded that, though awareness level of Schistosomiasis knowledge on the cause, mode of transmission and symptoms were high, they were ignorant on personal preventive strategies. In addition, the study also revealed that, S. haematobium was more prevalent among inhabitants living closer to the Bui dam with children less than 14 years of age being the worst affected.