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Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI IMS) can determine the chemical identity and spatial distribution of several molecules in a single analysis, conserving its natural histology. However, there are no specific studies on the spatial distribution of alkaloids in Erythroxylum coca leaves by MALDI IMS, preserving the histology of the monitored compounds. Therefore, in this work, positive-ion mode MALDI Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance imaging mass spectrometry (MALDI(+)FT-ICR IMS) was applied to identify and analyze the distribution of alkaloids on the surface of coca leaves, evaluating the ionization efficiency of three matrices (α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA), 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB)). The last was chosen as the best matrix in this study, and it was studied in five concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 8.0 mg·mL-1), where 2 mg·mL-1 was the most efficient. The washing of coca leaves with the organic solvents (acetonitrile, methanol, toluene, and dichloromethane) tested did not improve the performance of the ionization process. Finally, a tissue section, 50 μm thick, was used to study the inner part of the leaf tissue, where alkaloids and flavonoid molecules were detected. more...

Coca is the natural source of cocaine as well as a sacred and medicinal plant farmed by South American Amerindians and mestizos. The coca crop comprises four closely related varieties classified into two species (Amazonian and Huánuco varieties within Erythroxylum coca Lam., and Colombian and Trujillo varieties within Erythroxylum novogranatense (D. Morris) Hieron.) but our understanding of the domestication and evolutionary history of these taxa is nominal. In this study, we use genomic data from natural history collections to estimate the geographic origins and genetic diversity of this economically and culturally important crop in the context of its wild relatives. Our phylogeographic analyses clearly demonstrate the four varieties of coca comprise two or three exclusive groups nested within the diverse lineages of the widespread, wild species Erythroxylum gracilipes; establishing a new and robust hypothesis of domestication wherein coca originated two or three times from this wild progenitor. The Colombian and Trujillo coca varieties are descended from a single, ancient domestication event in northwestern South America. Huánuco coca was domesticated more recently, possibly in southeastern Peru. Amazonian coca either shares a common domesticated ancestor with Huánuco coca, or it was the product of a third and most recent independent domestication event in the western Amazon basin. This chronology of coca domestication reveals different Holocene peoples in South America were able to independently transform the same natural resource to serve their needs; in this case, a workaday stimulant. [Erythroxylum; Erythroxylaceae; Holocene; Museomics; Neotropics; phylogeography; plant domestication; target-sequence capture.] more...

En esta investigación se analizaron las causas sociales, ambientales y económicas que inciden en la pérdida de agrobiodiversidad de las chagras del pueblo indígena Inga en la Amazonía colombiana. Se usó una metodología cualitativa basada en entrevistas semiestructuradas, grupos focales y asambleas para validación de información. Los resultados muestran que la pérdida de la agrobiodiversidad se debe principalmente a cambios en los paradigmas de consumo y relación con el territorio; así mismo, al auge de los cultivos de coca (Erythroxylum coca) en la región, la economía cocalera y las fumigaciones aéreas con glifosato para su erradicación; a los cambios en la transmisión de los conocimientos tradicionales, proyectos externos que no tuvieron en cuenta las condiciones culturales de los resguardos; a los procesos de migración y a las pocas posibilidades de comercio de los productos de la chagra. more...

Introducción. Anualmente, cerca de 25 millones de mujeres en el mundo ingresan a la menopausia; alrededor de 30% sufrirá osteoporosis. Los tratamientos convencionales suelen tener efectos colaterales. En el Perú, existen alternativas en los recursos vegetales, como el Erythroxylum coca, con alto contenido de calcio, fibra y polifenoles. Objetivos. Evaluar el efecto del consumo de coca pulverizada en mujeres posmenopáusicas, y analizar la capacidad antioxidante de la coca pulverizada. Diseño. Estudio cuantitativo, cuasiexperimental, preprueba-posprueba. Institución. Centro de Investigación de Bioquímica y Nutrición, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú. Participantes. Mujeres posmenopáusicas voluntarias. Metodología. Siendo un único tratamiento y autocontrolado, se seleccionaron 25 voluntarias que cumplieron los criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Terminaron 21. Se les proporcionó hoja de coca pulverizada para un consumo diario de 4 g en agua durante 90 días. Todas continuaron con su dieta normal y estilo de vida. Se tomaron tres muestras de sangre por voluntaria, al inicio, antes del consumo del pulverizado, a los 45 días y a los 90 días. Principales medidas de resultados. En las voluntarias, se midió propéptido N-terminal de procolágeno tipo 1 (P1NP), telopéptido N-terminal del colágeno tipo 1 (NTX1), beta-crosslaps (βCTX) y fosfatasa alcalina ósea (BALP). En el micropulverizado, ABTS (capacidad antioxidante equivalente al trolox), FRAP (antioxidante potencial de reducción de hierro) y polifenoles. Resultados. Existió reducción significativa del marcador de resorción ósea NTX1 (de 12,719 a 0,9945 ng/mL; p more...

O tráfico de drogas proscritas no Brasil tem aumentado consideravelmente. Um dos reflexos desse crescimento se dá pelo quantitativo apreendido pelos órgãos de segurança pública de drogas sintéticas, canabinóides e, em sua maioria, por cocaína. O Brasil encontra-se geograficamente localizado em uma área onde o cultivo de espécies da família Erythroxylaceae é beneficiado, além disso, faz fronteiras com os principais países produtores de cocaína no mundo, o que dificulta, sobremaneira, o combate ao seu tráfico. As polícias federal e civil têm identificado, constantemente, novos fornecedores e novos locais de refino de cocaína, logo, a identificação das rotas de tráfico, origem geográfica e dos seus distribuidores torna-se cada vez mais complexa exigindo dos órgãos de segurança pública e da comunidade forense em geral um melhor aprimoramento de suas metodologias de identificação e quantificação, de forma a fornecerem informações conclusivas para o combate ao seu tráfico. Assim, nesse trabalho, foram avaliadas as principais abordagens metodológicas que contribuem para a elucidação da identificação das amostras de cocaína apreendida no país. more...

The genus Erythroxylum contains species used by indigenous people of South America long before the domestication of plants. Two species, E. coca and E. novogranatense, have been utilized for thousands of years specifically for their tropane alkaloid content. While abuse of the narcotic cocaine has impacted society on many levels, these species and their wild relatives contain untapped resources for the benefit of mankind in the form of foods, pharmaceuticals, phytotherapeutic products, and other high-value plant-derived metabolites. In this review, we describe the current state of knowledge of members within the genus and the recent advances in the realm of molecular biology and biochemistry. more...

En el siguiente artículo, resultado de investigación, se establece la relación que hay entre los metabolitos secundarios en la planta de Erythroxylum Coca var Coca y su uso medicinal en la población Nasa del departamento del Cauca- Colombia, basada en la revisión de literatura científica. Inicialmente se da a conocer los aspectos generales de la planta Erythroxylum Coca var. Coca, la cual posee diferentes metabolitos secundarios como los alcaloides: Benzometilecgonina (cocaína), cis y trans- cinamilcocaína, B- truxilina, tropacocaína, benzoilecgonina, B- higrina, dihidrocuscohigrina; flavonoides como los O-conjugados del Eriodictiol y terpenos como β- pineno (monoterpeno), β- mirceno (monoterpeno), nerolidol (sesquiterpeno); en el aceite esencial también se encuentra Ácido esteárico, fitol, ácido metil éster 7, 10, 13 hexadecatrienoico y nonacosano. Luego se menciona la biogénesis de cada metabolito principal y las formas de extracción más importantes de cada uno de ellos, de acuerdo a técnicas de laboratorio y técnicas ancestrales en la comunidad Nasa y, por último, se hace una relación entre la etnobotánica y la fitoquímica para comprender el uso medicinal. more...

A new forma specialis of Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum f. sp. erythroxyli) pathogenic to Erythroxylum coca and E. novogranatense is described. The pathogen was isolated from the vascular tissue of diseased plants from an Erythroxylum plantation in Hawaii. This pathogen causes vascular wilt symptoms and death in both E. coca and E. novogranatense plants as soon as 7 weeks after soil infestation. The pathogenicity of seven isolates from the affected field was determined in field and growth-chamber studies. Genetic variation was not detected among the seven Hawaiian isolates, using arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. The seven isolates could be differentiated from a strain isolated from a diseased E. coca plant from South America. All Hawaiian isolates and the South American isolate belonged to a single vegetative compatibility group. more...

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. erythroxyli causes a vascular wilt of the narcotic plant coca (Erythroxylum coca var. coca). To determine whether this pathogen can be transmitted by infested seed, fruit from symptomatic and asymptomatic plants was collected from different coca-growing areas in Peru and from an experimental field site in Hawaii. A total of 202 fruit from Peru and 69 fruit from Hawaii were surface-disinfested and separated into five parts: pedicel, pericarp, seed coat, endosperm, and cotyledons. After the pedicel and pericarp were removed from the seed coat, the seed was surface disinfested again. Each fruit part was plated separately. Both F. oxysporum and F. moniliforme were recovered from fruit collected in Peru. Both species were isolated from all parts of some fruit. F. oxysporum was isolated from 33% of the fruit plated and most (35%) of these isolates were obtained from the seed coat. Slightly greater numbers of isolates (57%) were recovered from asymptomatic plants than from symptomatic plants (43%). Only F. oxysporum was isolated from fruit collected in Hawaii. Most of these isolates (59%) were from the pedicels of fruit collected from symptomatic plants. Out of 91 isolates of F. oxysporum, 21 were pathogenic to coca seedlings in a bioassay. Six of these pathogenic isolates were originally from the pedicel of the fruit, eight from the pericarp, four from the seed coat, and three from the endosperm. No isolates from the cotyledons were pathogenic. Most of the pathogenic isolates (76%) were from symptomatic plants. The pathogenic isolates were characterized using random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis and vegetative compatibility groups. Based on these analyses, two different subpopulations of the forma specialis erythroxyli were found in Peru, whereas only one was present in Hawaii. These data indicate that infested seed may contribute significantly to dissemination of this pathogen because seed is collected by growers and planted fresh or fermented briefly before planting. more...

La coca es uno de los cultivos más antiguos en los Yungas de La Paz. Hoy en día, en su mayoría se planta en monocultivos y muchas veces en laderas inestables. El monocultivo de coca degrada los suelos, causa deslizamientos de terrenos, pérdida de biodiversidad y se desarrolla con el uso de agroquímicos potencialmente dañinos para la salud humana, los suelos y los cuerpos de agua. Sin embargo, en los Yungas persiste también un conocimiento ancestral sobre formas más sustentables de producción de coca con cultivos diversificados con árboles, arbustos y hierbas de diferentes usos. En este estudio se identificaron iniciativas y experiencias de recuperación de conocimientos ancestrales del cultivo sostenible de la coca, que integran técnicas de la agroforestería dinámica. La creciente demanda para coca orgánica puede ser una oportunidad para incentivar cultivos más sustentables y adaptados al cambio climático, que al mismo tiempo contribuyan a la seguridad alimentaria de las familias. Actualmente, el cultivo de coca con certificación orgánica en agroforestería dinámica ya representa una vía para más de 300 familias cocaleras en las Yungas de La Paz, y en miras de la degradación de suelos y la alta demanda de nuevas tierras para cultivar coca que está amenazando las áreas protegidas, es un potencial económico y ecológico para las más de 13 500 familias cocaleras de los Yungas paceños. Sin embargo, el cultivo de la coca en agroforestales dinámicos necesita apoyo técnico e institucional en el manejo de los sistemas agroforestales, en la investigación y en la comercialización tanto de la coca agroecológica como otros productos agroforestales., Acta Nova, 8 (4), ISSN:1683-0768 more...

In 2011, an alternative formulation of glyphosate (Cuspide 480SL®) was chosen to replace Roundup-SL®, Fuete-SL®, and Gly-41® for the control of Erythroxylum coca, the source of cocaine, in Colombia. Cuspide 480SL contains the active ingredient glyphosate isopropylamine (IPA) salt, which is the same active ingredient used in previous formulations. However, Cuspide 480SL contains an alkyl polyglycoside surfactant rather than the polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) surfactant used in other formulations and known to be more toxic to nonprimary producing aquatic organisms than glyphosate itself. An adjuvant, Cosmo-Flux F411, and water also are added to the spray mixture before application. Aquatic ecosystems adjacent to the target coca fields might be exposed to the spray mix, placing aquatic organisms at risk. Because no toxicity data were available for spray mixture on aquatic organisms, acute toxicity tests were conducted on aquatic plants, invertebrates, and fish, by using the Cuspide 480SL spray mix as described on the label. Based on the median effective concentration (EC50) values for similar organisms, the spray mixture was less toxic to aquatic organisms than formulations previously used for the control of coca (i.e., Roundup-SL, Fuete-SL, and Gly-41). A physical effect induced by Cosmo-Flux F411 was observed in Daphnia magna, Ceriodaphnia dubia, and Hyalella azteca, causing the invertebrates to be trapped in an oily film that was present at the surface of the water. However, a hazard assessment for the Cuspide 480SL spray mix, using estimated worst-case exposure scenario concentrations and EC50 values from the toxicity tests, indicated de minimis hazard for the tested aquatic animals, with hazard quotients all < more...

Introduction: Every year, about 25 million women all over the world experience menopause. Nearly 30% of them will suffer from osteoporosis. Conventional treatments tend to have side effects. In Peru, we have Erythroxylum coca, a vegetal alternative high in calcium, fiber and polyphenols. Objectives: To test the effects of the consumption of coca leaf powder in postmenopausal women and analyze the antioxidant capacity of coca leaf powder. Design: Quantitative, quasi-experimental, pre-test post-test study. Institution: Centro de Investigación de Bioquímica y Nutrición, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú. Participants: Volunteer postmenopausal women. Methodology: Unique and self-controlled treatment of 25 volunteers who met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Twenty one completed the treatment, which consisted of the daily ingestion of 4 g of coca leaf powder mixed with water for a period of 90 days. They kept their regular diet and lifestyle. Three blood samples per volunteer were taken before, after 45 and 90 days of treatment. Main outcomes: We measured procollagen 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP), N-telopeptide of type 1 collagen (NTX1), beta-crosslaps (ßCTX) and human bone alkaline phosphatase (BALP) in the volunteers. TEAC-ABTS (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity), FRAP (Ferric reducing antioxidant power) and polyphenols were determined in coca leaf powder. Results: A significant decrease in the bone resorption indicator NTX1 (from 12.719 to 0.9945 ng/mL; p more...

Objective: The aim of this study was to compare in vitro the antibacterial activity of an ethanol extract of Erythroxylum coca Lam (EEE) and Schinus molle L. (EES) at 50% and 75% versus Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175. Materials and Methods: This was a prospective, comparative, longitudinal experimental study. The ethanol extract of coca and molle leaves was obtained by the vacuum filtration method at concentrations of 50% and 75% and was compared with a positive control (0.12% chlorhexidine). Streptococcus mutans strains were isolated in a culture medium (Mitis Salivarius Agar) ideal for the growth of bacterial colonies. The antibacterial activity of the ethanol extract was carried out following the Kirby–Bauer disk-diffusion method in Mueller–Hinton agar to measure bacterial sensitivity. A value of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Evaluation of the antibacterial effect of EEE and EES at 24 and 48 h showed that a concentration of 75% for both groups had the highest antimicrobial activity against S. mutans (11.2 ± 0.7 mm; 11.6 ± 0.5 mm and 11.3 ± 0.7 mm; 11.8 ± 0.5 mm, respectively). So, the results have shown that the concentration of EEE and EES of 75% has a greater efficacy than the concentration of 50%, but both concentrations are not as effective as chlorhexidine. Conclusion: EEE and EES at concentrations of 50% and 75% present antibacterial activity against S. mutans ATCC 25175. more...

Colombian coca farmers have historically cultivated three varieties of coca for cocaine production (Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense, Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense, and Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu). Within the past 13 years, 15 new cultigens of cocaine-bearing Erythroxylum have been propagated by Colombian coca farmers; each with differing physical characteristics, yet producing cocaine alkaloids at similar levels found in the historical and native varieties. Fifteen new cultigens were collected from throughout Colombia and propagated along with the three historical varieties within an experimental field in Colombia. Five plants/cultigen were randomly selected and examined for alkaloid content to determine their varietal characteristics when compared to the three known varieties. Ten cultigens gave classic Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu alkaloid profiles, four cultigens produced alkaloid profiles consistent with a hybridization of Erythroxylum novogranatense and Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu, while one cultigen gave heterogeneous alkaloid profiles that could not be characterized. more...

Background: Peru has a large extension of deforested lands converted into crops of Erythroxylum coca. Methods: A local cost–benefit analysis investigates the conversion of 500 ha of coca crops into sustainable agroforestry eligible under the Kyoto Protocol (afforestation/reforestation CDM) in the Amazon. Results: From a social and environmental perspective, CDM agroforestry generates more benefits than coca monoculture, although the cost–benefit analysis results show that illegal plantations generate higher profits. In a way, CDM makes the alternative of agroforestry to illegal coca more economically attractive than the same reforestations without carbon credit, with the advantage of attracting international investors interested in environmentally sustainable projects. Conclusion: For the permanence and success of Kyoto projects, local government and the UN continue to play a major role in avoiding leakage effects and risks of narcotraffic return. more...

Considerando la veracidad de los beneficios de la hoja de Coca (Erythroxylum coca), este estudio tiene por objetivo evaluar la respuesta glucémica post ingesta de hoja de coca en personas sin previa patología metabólica. La metodología empleada es experimental, tipo ensayo clínico de campo. De una población de 345 personas de laEscuela Militar de Sargentos del Ejército de la ciudad de Cochabamba – Bolivia, se seleccionaron a 90 personas, de sexo masculino entre 18 a 25 años, sin antecedentes personales patológicos, con índices antropométricos normalesy glucemia en ayunas de 60 a 100 mg/dl. La muestra se dividió en un grupo control, un grupo post-ingesta de mate de 5 gr. de hoja de coca y otro grupo post-masticación de 5 gr. de hoja de coca, durante una prueba de tolerancia oral a la glucosa, evaluada por la toma glucemia capilar en ayunas y dos horas postprandial. Se analizaron:el promedio, desviación estándar y prueba t student. Los resultados más relevantes fueron: Glucemia postprandial del grupo control 100,4 (±11,9) mg/dl. Y (p=2,129), en el grupo de mate de coca 81,8 (±7,5) mg/dl y (p=0,003), y en el grupo de masticación de hoja de coca 82,07 (± 8,8) mg/dl y (p=0,082). Se concluye que la hoja de coca (Erythroxylum coca) reduce la glucemia postprandial en este grupo, siendo estadísticamente significativa en las dos formas de consumo mate y masticación en comparación que el grupo control. more...

A B S T R A C T Cocaine abuse is widespread all over the world, and is performed generally by sniffing, injecting or smoking cocaine or crack. The distinction between the recreational use of cocaine from the practice of the so called ‘‘coqueo’’ is still an issue in those countries where this habit is diffused and where it is not considered an addiction, by this reason is necessary to develop a method for to distinguish the coca chewers and cocaine abusers. The use of an unique marker to distinguish between cocaine abuse and chewing of coca leaves is of fundamental importance in those countries where this habit is diffused. Certain alkaloids of the leaves of Erythroxylum coca are lost during the process of extraction/purification of cocaine and it is not possible to find them neither in seizures of chlorhidrate of cocaine nor urine samples of cocaine abusers. These markers are the hygrine and cuscohygrine that are present in the leaves of E. coca. A fast GC/MS method involving a liquid:liquid extraction procedure with tertbutylmethylether (TBME) is proposed for the determination of some alkaloids in cocaine leaves, cocaine seizures and biological samples. All specimens were alkalinized to pH 9 with a carbonate/bicarbonate buffer and then extracted with TBME. The analysis was carry out by GC/MS with electron impact at 70 eV and in full scan mode. The results demonstrate that hygrine and cuscohygrine are not found neither in the urine of cocaine abusers nor in cocaine seizures. For this reason this compounds could be considered as markers of coca chewing. This developed method permits to distinguish coca chewing from cocaine abuse in workplace drug testing through the analysis of urine samples. more...

The leaves of coca (Erythroxylum coca var. coca), a South American shrub which contains cocaine, other alkaloids and phenolics are widely used by indigenous populations of the Andes. It is currently not known if coca consumption causes genotoxic effects in humans. This information is important to predict potential long-term toxic effects such as cancer induction. Therefore, the buccal cytome assay was used to analyze oral cells from 45 uni- and bilateral chewers and 23 controls living in the Altiplano of the Peruvian Andes. In total, 123,471 cells were evaluated from chewers and 57,916 from controls. Information concerning the consumption levels and habits and also use of lime were collected with questionnaires. Chewing of the leaves did not induce nuclear anomalies reflecting genetic damage such as micronuclei (MNi) and nuclear buds; in the highest exposure group (but not in the overall group) even a significant decrease in the frequencies of cells with MNi (by 64 %) was observed. However, we found significantly elevated levels of other nuclear anomalies (karyorrhexis and karyolysis) which reflect cytotoxic effects in the coca users. The frequencies of these anomalies increased with the daily consumption and when lime was used to improve the release of the alkaloids. In contrast to other chewing habits (betel, tobacco and khat), consumption of coca leaves does not induce genetic instability in cells from the oral cavity and our findings indicate that no adverse health effects take place in chewers which are associated with DNA damage. However, the significant increase in certain anomalies shows that acute toxic effects are caused by coca consumption. more...

L'objectif de cet article est de montrer, dans la problématique globale des cultures illicites des contreforts andins en zone amazonienne, les efforts originaux entrepris en Colombie amazonienne, dans le département du Caquetá entre 1998 et 2004, pour mener une politique de diversification des activités et de développement de l'hévéa comme alternative à la culture de la coca. L'exemple de l'association des producteurs du caoutchouc du Caqueta et les efforts entrepris pour améliorer les itinéraires techniques des systèmes agroforestiers à base d'hévéas pour être compétitifs avec la coca, sont révélateurs de ce dynamisme, de la forte capacité de mobilisation sociale, et des processus d'innovation de cette région. more...

Four taxa of the plant genus Erythroxylum; Erythroxylum coca var. coca (Ecc), Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu (Eci), Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense (Enn) and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense (Ent) are cultivated primarily for the illicit extraction and processing of cocaine. Despite their economic and medical importance, the evolutionary history of these species remains unknown in a modern phylogenetic framework. The aims of this study were to: (a) investigate the relationship among the cultivated and a select number of non-cultivated taxa, and (b) test Plowman’s (Journal of Psychodelic Drugs 11:103–117, 1979b) linear progression hypothesis of the cultivated Erythroxylum taxa versus Johnson’s et al. (Annals of Botany 95:601–608, 2005) hypothesis that Ec and En are sister species. AFLP phylogeny was used to compare the relationships among 36 Erythroxylum species (133 accessions) spanning the geographic distribution of the genus. A Maximum Parsimony tree revealed both geographic and taxonomic partitioning into clades representing species from Africa, Asia-Pacific and the New World (Tropical Americas). Ec and En formed distinct clades, indicating they are sister species and a cluster of non-cultivated species were the most closely related to the cultivated species. Multivariate ordination analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between cultivated and non-cultivated Erythroxylum taxa from the Tropical Americas. Our results support the hypothesis that the cultivated species are more closely related to each other than to any other species of Erythroxylum, but refute the hypothesis that Ent (and Enn) descended from Ecc. Instead our data suggest an independent, non-linear evolutionary relationship between Ec and En. Finally, the AFLP analyses identified significantly different genetic groups within Erythroxylum suggesting that the current intrageneric classification of this genus be revised. more...

The spraying of coca (Erythroxylum coca) with glyphosate in Colombia has raised concerns about possible impacts on amphibians. There are few toxicity data for species other than those from temperate regions, and these have not been generated with the combination of formulated glyphosate (Glyphos) and the adjuvant, Cosmo-Flux (coca mix) as used in coca control in Colombia. In order to characterize toxicity of the spray mixture to frogs from Colombia, Gosner stage-25 tadpoles of Scinax ruber, Dendropophus microcephalus, Hypsiboas crepitans, Rhinella granulosa, Rhinella marina, Rhinella typhonius, Centrolene prosoblepon, and Engystomops pustulosus were exposed to the coca mix at concentrations of glyphosate ranging from 1 to 4.2 mg a.e./L diluted in dechlorinated tap water in glass containers. Cosmo-Flux was added to Glyphos in the proportion of 2.3% v/v, as used in aerial application for coca control. Exposures were for 96 h at 23 +/- 1.5 degrees C with 12:12-h light/dark cycle. Test solutions were renewed every 24 h. Concentrations, measured within the first hour and at 24 and 96 h using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Abraxis, LLC), ranged from 70 to 130% of nominal values. LC50 values ranged from 1200 to 2780 microg glyphosate acid equivalents (a.e.)/L for the 8 species tested. Data suggest that sensitivity to Roundup-type formulations of glyphosate in these species is similar to that observed in other tropical and temperate species. In addition, sensitivity of larval amphibians to Roundup-type formulations spans a relatively narrow range. Finally, toxicity of the mixture as used to spray coca was likely driven by the surfactant in the glyphosate formulation, as the addition of Cosmo-Flux did not enhance toxicity above those reported for Vision = Roundup. more...

The Colombian amphibian fauna is among the richest known in the world, with about 20 species of salamanders (order Caudata), 35 of the limbless caecilians (order Gymnophiona), and more than 700 species of frogs and toads (order Anura) recorded from localities within the country. The potential effects of exposure to glyphosate on amphibians arising from production of illegal crops (coca) were examined. The analysis was based on (1) behavior and ecology of species and (2) proximities of actual museum records to localities in which illegal crops are being grown and the subset of those that have been sprayed with glyphosate. Based on data on the location of amphibians collected in Colombia, records were obtained for 193 species (28% of the national diversity) of frogs and toads found in localities within 10 km of areas where coca is grown. Further analyses with ARC MAP software allowed for measurement of the direct distance separating collection locations for frogs, known coca fields, and areas where aerial spraying was being conducted. Records in or near coca fields included data for 11 of 13 families of frogs and toads known to be present in Colombia. Only Ceratophryidae and Pipidae were not reported from these locations and appear not to be at risk. For eight species (Dendrobates truncatus, Craugastor raniformis, Pristimantis gaigeae, Smilisca phaeota, Elachistocleis ovale, Hypsiboas crepitans, Trachycephalus venulosus, and Pseudis paradoxa) selected to represent several habitat preferences and life-cycle strategies, large areas of their distributions lie outside coca production regions and their populations as a whole are at low risk. For a limited number of species that barely enter Colombian territory, the consequences of coca production may be more serious and may have placed several species of frogs at risk. These include Ameerega bilingua, Dendropsophus bifurcus, Pristimantis colomai, P. degener, P. diadematus, P. quaquaversus, P. variabilis, and Trachycephalus jordani. Other species may also be at risk but exact numbers are unknown since few investigations were undertaken in these areas during the past 30 yr. The main ranges for these species were assumed to be in Ecuador. more...

The aerial spray program for the eradication of coca in Colombia uses Glyphos, a local formulation of glyphosate tank-mixed with an adjuvant product, Cosmo-Flux. There are some potential risks to amphibians from direct overspraying of shallow waters. In order to evaluate potential alternative mixtures, a field experiment was conducted at the Center of National Training of Police Operations in Tolima province, Colombia. Plants of coca were established with irrigation and grown to 75 cm tall. A randomized split-plot design experiment was laid out and sprayed with a range of glyphosate formulations and different adjuvants using an experimental ground sprayer. Assessments were made of plant vigor, height, and above-ground standing crop (fresh weight) 3 wk after application. Resprouting of plants was assessed at 9 wk after treatment. Unformulated glyphosate applied as the product Rodeo gave poorer control of coca than two formulated products, Roundup Biactive (from Europe) and Colombian Glyphos. In general, these products performed well without added adjuvants, giving control similar to that of the eradication mixture with Cosmo-Flux. There was some evidence that addition of the adjuvant Silwet L-77 and to a lesser extent Mixture B (from the United Kingdom) gave more rapid herbicide symptoms. There were also indications that glyphosate rates of less than 3.69 kg acid equivalents (a.e.)/ha could give control in the range of 95%. Depending on the environmental risk requirements, the experiment indicates that, should other spray mixtures be required, there are potential alternatives. These would require extensive field testing to cover different environmental conditions, different coca varieties, and particularly aerial application, prior to a recommendation. Should the glyphosate product require changing, Roundup Biactive may be considered. Should the adjuvant require changing, then on the basis of this research, Silwet L-77 and Mixture B would be good candidates for further evaluation. more...

The spraying of coca (Erythroxylum coca) with glyphosate (coca mixture, a combination of formulated glyphosate, Glyphos, and an adjuvant, Cosmo-Flux) in Colombia has raised concerns about possible impacts on amphibians. Although acute LC50 for 8 species of Colombian frogs ranged from 1.2 to 2.78 mg acid equivalents (a.e.)/L, these exposures were conducted in the laboratory in the absence of sediments and organic matter such as would occur under realistic field conditions. In order to assess the effects of overspray of frog habitat under field conditions, Gosner stage 25 tadpoles of Rhinella granulosa, R. marina, Hypsiboas crepitans, and Scinax ruber were placed in outdoor microcosms made from polyethylene plastic fish ponds (2.07 m in diameter, 37 cm high) in an experimental area in Tolima, Colombia. The bottoms of the microcosms were covered with a 3-cm layer of local soil and they were filled to a depth of 15 cm (above the sediment) with local spring water. After up to 100 tadpoles of each frog species were placed in the microcosms, they were sprayed with the coca mixture at concentrations greater and less than the normal application rate (3.69 kg glyphosate a.e./ha). Mortality at 96 h in the control microcosms was between 0 and 16% and LC50 values were between 8.9 and 10.9 kg glyphosate a.e./ha (equivalent to initial concentrations of 5963 to 7303 microg glyphosate a.e./L). MortalityLC50 was only observed in the tested species when the application rate was2-fold the normal application rate. In other experiments, juvenile and adult terrestrial stages of frogs were exposed by direct spraying to a range of concentrations of coca mixture. Juveniles and adults were exposed in plastic food containers (19 x 19 cm). The bottom of the container was filled with moistened soil and leaf litter to a depth of 1 cm and 0.5 cm, respectively. Mortality in the controls was low, from 0 to 10%, and from 0 to 35% at the normal application rate. LC50 values ranged between 4.5 kg a.e./ha and 22.8 kg a.e./ha, 1.5- to 6-fold greater than the normal application rate. Data indicate that, under realistic worst-case exposure conditions, the mixture of Glyphos and Cosmo-Flux as used for control of coca in Colombia exerts a low toxicity to aquatic and terrestrial stages of anurans and that risks to these organisms under field conditions are small. more...

El estudio consistió en evaluar el aceite esencial de Erythroxylum coca Lam. var. coca (Coca) – proveniente de la provincia de Quillabamba, región Cusco y determinar su actividad antibacteriana; así mismo, elucidar su composición química por Cromatografía de Gases / Espectrometría de Masa (CG/EM). La parte usada de la planta fueron las hojas secas proporcionadas por la Empresa Nacional de la Coca ENACO S.A., las que se trataron con un sistema de destilación por arrastre con vapor de agua. El rendimiento del aceite esencial fue de 0,08% v/p y en éste se practicaron los ensayos fisicoquímicos: miscibilidad, densidad e índice de refracción. En la composición química se encontraron los siguientes componentes: Guaia-1(5),(11)–diene, t–cadinene, (2E,7R,11R)-3,7,11,15-tetrametil-2-hexadecen-1-ol, eudesm-4(14)-en-11-ol, hexahydrofarnesil cetona, ácido hexadecanoico, fitol, ácido cis-9-octadecenoico y ácido octadecanoico. El estudio de la actividad antibacteriana in vitro, utilizando el método de excavación placa cultivo a concentraciones de 10 y 50% del aceite, mostró mayor actividad a Staphylococcus aureus cepa ATCC 25923, que frente a las cepas de Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, y Pseudomonas aeruginosa cepa ATCC 27853. Se determinó que los componentes químicos del aceite esencial de Erythroxylum coca Lam. Var coca (Coca) poseen actividad antibacteriana contra Staphylococcus aureus. more...

La cocaína es un alcaloide que se extrae de las hojas del arbusto Erythroxylum coca que se encuentra en varios países, incluyendo el territorio Colombiano. La utilización del alcaloide ha tenido un gran impacto socioeconómico y ambiental, ya que su tráfico como droga alucinógena es considerado ilegal. Sin embargo, muchas personas consumen tradicionalmente las hojas de Erythroxylum coca debido a sus propiedades anestésicas, digestivas y para mejorar los síntomas del mal de altura, entre otras. El propósito de este estudio consistió en identificar biomarcadores que permitan diferenciar entre el consumo de la cocaína procesada como droga de abuso y el consumo de hoja de Erythroxylum coca. El interés surgió con la finalidad de determinar si una persona involucrada en un proceso penal con cocaína en su organismo debe recibir un agravante punitivo si es consumidora de alucinógenos, en contraposición a quienes consumen la hoja de coca que no reciben ninguna sanción de acuerdo a la ley penal colombiana. Cocaine is an alkaloid extracted from the leaves of t he shrub Erythroxylum coca , which is found in several countries, including the Colombia n territory. The use of the alkaloid has had a great environmental and socioeconomic impact, as its traffic as hallucinogenic drug is considered illegal. However, many p eople traditionally consume Erythroxylum coca leaves due to its anesthetic, digestive properties and in order to improve the symptoms of altitude sickness, among other properties. The purpose of this research consisted in identify biomarkers that can diffe rentiate between the consumption of the pure cocaine as hallucinogenic drug and the consumption of the Erythroxylum coca leaf . The interest arose in order to determine whether a person involved in a criminal process with a cocaine in h is body , should recei ve a punitive sanction if it is consumer of hallucinogens, as opposed who consumers the coca leaf that do not have any sanctions under Colombian criminal law more...