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Plot-based monitoring has yielded much information on the taxonomic diversity and carbon (C) storage in tropical lowland forests of the Amazon basin. This has resulted in an improved understanding of the relationship between lowland forest biomass dynamics and global change drivers, such as climate change and atmospheric CO2 concentration. Much less attention has been paid to the mountain ecosystems of South America that comprise montane forests and alpine vegetation (páramo, puna, high Andean grasslands, wetlands, and alpine heath). This vegetation complex provides a variety of ecosystem services and forms a natural laboratory along various physiographic, geological and evolutionary history/biogeography, and land use history gradients. Here, we review existing empirical understanding and model-based approaches to quantify the contribution of mountain ecosystems to ecosystem service provision in the rapidly changing socioecological setting of the South American mountains. The objective of this paper is to outline a broad road map for the implementation of mountain vegetation into dynamic global vegetation models (DGVM) for use in Earth System Models (ESM), based on our current understanding of their structure and function and of their responsiveness to global change drivers. We also identify treeline processes, critical in mountain ecosystems, as key missing elements in DGVMs/ESMs, and thus explore in addition a treeline model. Stocktaking of the availability of empirical data was undertaken from eight research sites along the Andes and in south-eastern Brazil. Out of eight sites, two (one each in Venezuela and Brazil) had some climate, ecological and ecophysiological data potentially suitable to parametrise a DGVM. Tree biomass data were available for six sites. A preliminary assessment of the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES) DGVM was made to identify gaps in available data and their impacts on model parametrisation and calibration. Additionally, the potential climate-determined elevation of the treeline was modelled to check the DGVM for its ability to identify the transition between the montane forest and alpine vegetation. Outcomes of the evaluation of the JULES land surface model identified the following key processes in montane forests: temperature-related decrease in net primary production, respiration, and allocation to above-ground biomass and increase in soil C stocks with elevation. There was a variable agreement between simulated biomass and those derived from field measurements via allometric equations. We identified major gaps between data availability and the needs for process-based modelling of South American mountain vegetation and its dynamics in DGVMs. To bridge this gap, we propose a transdisciplinary network, composed of members of the theoretical/modelling and empirical scientific communities, to study the natural dynamics of mountain ecosystems and their responses to global change drivers locally, regionally and at the continental scale, within a social-ecological system framework. The work presented here forms the basis for the design of data collection from field measurements and instrumental monitoring stations to parametrise and verify DGVMs. The network is designed to collaborate with and complement existing long-term research initiatives in the region and will adopt existing standard field protocols. Complementary protocols will ensure compatibility between field data collection and data needed for process-based and empirical models.

In non-flooded lowland rain forests with low soil phosphorus (P) in parts of Amazonia, P cycling largely occurs via leaf litter recycling by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal symbionts. Occasional high input of P into these ecosystems occurs during drought years with increased litterfall. As the length and frequency of drought events are projected to increase in the region, a single-dose nutrient addition experiment was carried out to test how this would impact P cycling. An application rate of 4 kg P ha–1 was used, which corresponds to twice the amount of litter-derived P in an average year. It was hypothesized that i) the added mineral P would be immobilized by soil microorganisms, leading to measurable increase in soil microbial biomass carbon (C) and P and ii) AM colonization rate would be reduced by the pulse in mineral P available for plant uptake. The results did not support either of our hypotheses. The addition of P did not have an effect on AM root colonization, nor was P immobilized by soil microbiota during the experimental period. The lack of a difference between the control and treatment at our study site could be attributed to the relatively low one-off dose of P applied that did not change either the colonization rate of roots by AM fungi or the amount of soil available labile P. To obtain a mechanistic understanding of the availability, capture, and use of P by plant-symbiont associations in tropical rain forest ecosystems, further integrated studies of the soil-plant system combining long-term nutrient manipulations, modeling, and experimental approaches are required.

Our relationship with the landscape has developed through time and more and more the environment is responding to human-driven changes. Now is the time to steer this relationship towards a sustainable future, suggest our Editorial Board Members. Our relationship with the landscape has developed through time and more and more the environment is responding to human-driven changes. Now is the time to steer this relationship towards a sustainable future, suggest our Editorial Board Members.

Microbiota are essential components of the soil, driving biogeochemical cycles. Fungi affect decomposition and biotic interactions with plants across scales. Climate projections suggest that extended dry seasons may transform sensitive rain forests into savanna-like vegetation, with consequent changes in biogeochemistry. Here we compare the impacts of natural seasonality with 14 years of partial throughfall exclusion in an Amazonian rain forest, focussing on soil fungal functional diversity, extracellular soil enzyme activities (EEA) and their implications for nutrient dynamics. Large changes in fungal diversity and functional group composition occur in response to drought, with a conspicuous increase in the abundance of dark-septate fungi and a decrease in fungal pathogens. The high seasonality of EEA in the control (non droughted) and suppression of seasonality in the drought treatment, together with an increased implied nitrogen demand in the dry season induced by experimental drought, suggest that the changed soil microbiota activity may signal a pending shift in the biogeochemical functioning of the forest. Long-term experimental drought in the Amazon rain forest leads to shifts in soil fungal community composition, soil enzyme activities that indicate nitrogen limitation, and an increase in the relative abundance of drought-resistant dark septate fungi.

Introductions and invasions by fungi, especially pathogens and mycorrhizal fungi, are widespread and potentially highly consequential for native ecosystems, but may also offer opportunities for linking microbial traits to their ecosystem functions. In particular, treating ectomycorrhizal (EM) invasions, i.e., co-invasions by EM fungi and their EM host plants, as natural experiments may offer a powerful approach for testing how microbial traits influence ecosystem functions. Forests dominated by EM symbiosis have unique biogeochemistry whereby the secretions of EM plants and fungi affect carbon (C) and nutrient cycling; moreover, particular lineages of EM fungi have unique functional traits. EM invasions may therefore alter the biogeochemistry of the native ecosystems they invade, especially nitrogen (N) and C cycling. By identifying “response traits” that favor the success of fungi in introductions and invasions (e.g., spore dispersal and germination) and their correlations with “effect traits” (e.g., nutrient-cycling enzymes) that can alter N and C cycling (and affect other coupled elemental cycles), one may be able to predict the functional consequences for ecosystems of fungal invasions using biogeochemistry models that incorporate fungal traits. Here, we review what is already known about how EM fungal community composition, traits, and ecosystem functions differ between native and exotic populations, focusing on the example of EM fungi associated with species of Pinus introduced from the Northern into the Southern Hemisphere. We develop hypotheses on how effects of introduced and invasive EM fungi may depend on interactions between soil N availability in the exotic range and EM fungal traits. We discuss how such hypotheses could be tested by utilizing Pinus introductions and invasions as a model system, especially when combined with controlled laboratory experiments. Finally, we illustrate how ecosystem modeling can be used to link fungal traits to their consequences for ecosystem N and C cycling in the context of biological invasions, and we highlight exciting avenues for future directions in understanding EM invasion., Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 3, ISSN:2624-893X

Tropical forests are providers of relevant ecosystem services at different spatial scales, but they have been under intense human pressure in recent decades, primarily because of their conversion into agricultural or pasture lands. Colonization projects have been a significant driver of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon since the 1970s. Such projects are mostly agricultural settlements that were established following specific spatial designs that affected land distribution, social connections, access to natural resource and infrastructure, and the mitigation of environmental disturbances. We analyzed spatiotemporal deforestation datasets from settlement projects planned and implemented using three spatial designs (fishbone, dendritic, and spontaneous) to assess the effects on deforestation and landscape fragmentation in the state of Rondonia, in the Brazilian Amazon. We applied landscape metrics to estimate the different impacts on landscape between 1985 and 2015. Our results indicate that approximately 50% of the primary forests, mostly tropical forests, were converted to other types of land uses during the study period. We observed that while the fishbone design allowed the connection of forest patches along an East-West axis, it showed an opposite effect on the North-South one. In contrast, the dendritic design proved to be more efficient in protecting primary forests by causing lesser landscape fragmentation and conserving larger forest patches. However, the landscape impacts by different settlement spatial designs showed similar fragmentation trajectories and deforestation rates overtime. Based on our results, we have concluded that the combination of settlement designs, presence of protected areas, and local community participation have helped prevent forest fragmentation and deforestation in the study region. Our analysis suggests that settlement designs alone are not sufficient to curb deforestation and forest fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon. As a result, we indicate that controlling both processes will require the enforcement of public and environmental policies integrated with land occupation planning and strategies to support sustainable agricultural systems.

Pulse-type perturbation through excreta by animals creates a mosaic of short-term high nutrient-load patches in the soil. How this affects microbial community composition and how long these impacts last are important for microbial community dynamics and nutrient cycling. Our study focused on the short-term responses to N by bacterial communities and ‘functional groups’ associated with the N cycle in a lowland evergreen tropical rainforest. We applied a single urea pulse, equivalent to urine-N deposition by medium-sized mammals to simulate N enrichment and changes in soil N availability, and analysed soil bacterial communities using molecular methods, before and after urea application. Urea addition increased mineral N availability and changed bacterial community composition, from phylum to operational taxonomic unit levels, however, taxon richness and diversity were unaffected. Taxa involved in the physiologically “narrow” processes of nitrification (e.g. Nitrosospira) and denitrification (e.g. Phyllobacteriaceae, Xanthomonadaceae and Comamonadaceae) increased their relative abundance, while N2-fixers (e.g. Rhodospirillales, and Rhizobiales) decreased after treatment. While a temporal legacy on both community composition and functional group profile was observable 58 and 159 days after treatment, at the latter date bacterial communities were already tending towards pre-treatment composition. We suggest that pulse-type perturbation by mammal urine that occurs on a daily basis has strong short-term effects on patch dynamics of soil microbiota and N availability. Such a spatio-temporally dynamic soil environment enhances overall microbial richness and diversity, and contributes to the apparent temporal resilience of community composition. A plain language summary is available for this article. © 2017 The Authors. Functional Ecology © 2017 British Ecological Society

Most tropical evergreen rain forests are characterised by varying degrees of precipitation seasonality that influence plant phenology and litterfall dynamics. Soil microbes are sensitive to soil water:air ratio and to nutrient availability. We studied if within-year seasonality in precipitation and litterfall-derived nutrient input resulted in predictable seasonal variation in soil bacterial diversity/microbial functional groups in an Amazonian forest. We characterised the spatio-temporal dynamics of microbial communities from the plot to the stand scales and related them to precipitation seasonality and spatial variability in soil characteristics. Community composition and functional diversity showed high spatial heterogeneity and was related to variability in soil chemistry at the stand level. Large species turnover characterised plot level changes over time, reflecting precipitation seasonality-related changes in soil nutrient and moisture regimes. The abundance of decomposers was highest during the rainy season, characterised also by anaerobic saprophytes and N2-fixers adapted to fluctuating redox conditions. In contrast, Beijerinckiaceae, likely derived from the phyllosphere, were found at higher abundances when litter inputs and accumulation were highest. We showed that in a mildly seasonal rain forest, the composition of soil microbial communities appears to be following canopy phenology patterns and the two are interlinked and drive soil nutrient availability.

Mediterranean forest ecosystems are characterized by various vascular plant groups with their associated mycorrhizae and free living soil fungi with various ecological functions. Fire plays a major role in Mediterranean ecosystem dynamics and impacts both above- and below-ground community structure and functioning. However, studies on the effects induced by altered disturbance regimes (associated with recent land use and climate extremes) on fire ecology and especially on its below-ground impacts are few. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of different wildfire regimes on soil fungal community structure using two different molecular methods. We investigated the long-term effects of wildfire on soil fungal communities associated with Pinus pinaster forests in central Portugal, by comparing the results of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)-based profiling with those obtained with 454 pyrosequencing. Four forest stands with differing fire history and fire return interval, and vegetation cover (mature forest, early successional stage of pine regeneration, and forest converted to scrubland) were sampled 6 years after the last fire event. The pyrosequencing-based approach indicated ca. eight-fold higher numbers of taxa than DGGE. However, fungal community fingerprinting data obtained for the different study stands with DGGE were congruent with those obtained with pyrosequencing. Both short (7.6 years) and long (24 years) fire return intervals (indicated by the presence of ericaceous shrubs in the understorey) induced a decrease in the abundance ratio between basidiomycetes and ascomycetes and appeared to reduce the frequency of ectomycorrhizal fungal species and saprophytes. Wildfire significantly reduced the frequency of late stage successional taxa (e.g. Atheliaceae and Cantharellales) and known or putative saprophytes belonging to the Clavulinaceae and the Archaeorhizomycetaceae. Conversely, early successional fungal species belonging to the Thelephoraceae were favoured by both fire return intervals, while the abundance of Cortinarius and Hebeloma, which include several Cistus-specific species, increased with short wildfire return intervals. This last finding highlights the relationship between post-fire vegetation composition and cover (vegetation successional stage), and fungal symbionts. We hypothesise that these changes could, in the long term, exhaust the resilience of Mediterranean pine forest vegetation and associated soil fungal communities by preventing pine regeneration.

Little attention has been paid to plant mutualistic interactions in the Amazon rainforest, and the general pattern of occurrence and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in these ecosystems is largely unknown. This study investigated AMF communities through their spores in soil in a 'terra firme forest' in Central Amazonia. The contribution played by abiotic factors and plant host species identity in regulating the composition, abundance and diversity of such communities along a topographic gradient with different soils and hydrology was also evaluated. Forty-one spore morphotypes were observed with species belonging to the genera Glomus and Acaulospora, representing 44 % of the total taxa. Soil texture and moisture, together with host identity, were predominant factors responsible for shaping AMF communities along the pedo-hydrological gradient. However, the variability within AMF communities was largely associated with shifts in the relative abundance of spores rather than changes in species composition, confirming that common AMF species are widely distributed in plant communities and all plants recruited into the forest are likely to be exposed to the dominant sporulating AMF species.

The structure and functioning of natural ecosystems reflect spatial and temporal characteristics of the atmosphere, physiography (geology, topo-hydro-pedo sequences), and biodiversity (vegetation type and associated fauna). Exchanges of gases, water, and organic and inorganic compounds between atmosphere and biosphere (vegetation, soil) strongly contribute to biogeochemical phenomena in Amazonia and to atmospheric phenomena within and outside of Amazonia. Some of these exchanges have importance for cloud formation and rainfall, while others (carbonic and trace gases) contribute to carbon sequestration/greenhouse effects. The Amazon basin encompasses diverse combinations of climate, soil, and hydrology that result in a variety of vegetation types. The current state of knowledge on Amazonian regional biochemistry is mainly based on studies carried out in terra firme type ‘lowland evergreen rainforest’, with a focus on the carbon cycle. For a better understanding of the biogeochemical functioning of the Amazon basin, attention to physiography and its relationship, including feedback mechanism, with vegetation diversity at the landscape scale is needed. This chapter synthesises patterns in biogeochemistry of the main vegetation formations of the Amazon basin. The objective is to demonstrate differences in elemental cycles (stock and fluxes) among the main vegetation formations. The patterns of fixation, storage, and use of nutrients for biomass production, the patterns of internal (re)cycling (leaching of crown nutrients, litterfall, root growth and death) within the main forest types, and the patterns of litter decomposition and soil processes (nutrient availability, nitrogen mineralisation vs. immobilisation) and gas emissions from soil are discussed.

We investigated the influence of fire return interval length on the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) community of a Pinus pinaster dominated forest and on the potential for common ECM networks (CMNs) between understorey shrubs and P. pinaster . ECM root tips were sampled from five shrub species belonging to the genera Arbutus , Cistus and Halimium and from maritime pine in four areas of central Portugal characterized by differing fire return interval length. Fungal symbionts were identified using molecular techniques with direct sequencing of the nrDNA ITS region. Twenty nine ECM species and sixteen non-ECM root inhabitants were identified. Six years after wildfire disturbance ECM species richness did not differ significantly between unburnt and burnt areas. Nine ECM fungal species were common to pine and shrubs and both their frequency of occurrence and proportion were significantly higher in the unburnt area when compared with both areas subjected to fire. Our study revealed that while the potential for CMNs between understorey shrub species and pine seemed to be maintained in the long fire return interval area, recurrent fires significantly reduced the frequency of occurrence and the proportion of common symbiont species. High fire frequencies could therefore delay the process of re-colonization by pine seedlings limiting their dispersal in new settings.

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, in particular their spores and other resistant propagules, play an important role in secondary succession processes that facilitate regeneration after disturbance events. In this study, the effects of high and low wildfire frequencies (respectively short and long fire return intervals) on the resistant propagules communities (RPCs) of a Mediterranean open pine forest were compared. Soil samples were collected in four mountain sites with different fire return intervals and used to test ectomycorrhiza development in two hosts, Pinus pinaster and Quercus suber. RPCs were characterized by direct sequencing of fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions from individual ECM root tips. Eighteen ECM species were detected in the bioassay. The most frequently found fungi were Cenococcum geophilum, Inocybe jacobi, Thelephora terrestris, Tomentella ellisii on both hosts and Rhizopogon luteolus and R. roseolus on maritime pine. A short fire return interval reduced the species richness of the ECM community found on Q. suber, promoted species like R. roseolus and reduced the abundance of other species (e.g. R. luteolus). The abundance of I. jacobi was positively affected by long fire return interval, but decreased significantly with recurrent fires. These results indicate that changes in fire frequency can alter the structure, composition and diversity of ECM communities, which could compromise the resilience of the ecosystem in highly disturbed areas.

Ireland's geographic location on the western fringe of the European continent, together with its island status and impoverished avifauna, provides a unique opportunity to observe changes in bird migration and distribution patterns in response to changing climatic conditions. Spring temperatures have increased in western Europe over the past 30 years in line with reported global warming. These have been shown, at least in part, to be responsible for changes in the timing of life cycle events (phenology) of plants and animals. In order to investigate the response of bird species in Ireland to changes in temperature, we examined ornithological records of trans-Saharan migrants over the 31-year period 1969-1999. Analysis of the data revealed that two discrete climatic phenomena produced different responses in summer migrant bird species. Firstly, a number of long-distance migrants showed a significant trend towards earlier arrival. This trend was evident in some species and was found to be a response to increasing spring air temperature particularly in the month of March. Secondly, (1) a step change in the pattern of occurrences of non-breeding migrant bird species, and (2) an increase in the ringing data of migrant species were found to correlate with a step change in temperature in 1987-1988. These results indicate that, for migrant bird species, the impact of a sudden change in temperature can be as important as any long-term monotonic trend, and we suggest that the impact of step change events merits further investigation on a wider range of species and across a greater geographical range.

The effect of mechanical clearing and litter removal on control of Sydney golden wattle was studied in areas of Portugal that had been invaded for either long or short periods. The plant species that emerged and soil parameters were monitored to assess the recovery potential and the soil status of these areas after Sydney golden wattle control. More plant species emerged in the plots where mechanical control in combination with litter removal was applied than in nontreated plots or in plots where mechanical control alone was used. More plant species emerged in the recently invaded areas than in those that had been invaded for a long time. More Sydney golden wattle seedlings were found in the long-invaded area than in the recently invaded one. Total litter, nitrogen and carbon content, and β-glucosaminidase activity were higher in the soil of the long-invaded compared with the recently invaded areas. Regarding the efficacy of the methods used to remove Sydney golden wattle, sprouting was not obser...

Termites seri (especially Syntermes aculeosus soldiers) are collected extensively by Makiritare (or Ye Kuana Indians in the Alto Orinoco) and consumed raw or after soaking in hot water (60 -80 C). They are gathered be means of termite fishing technique and then transported into a package called kukuruciu made with Musacean (Phenakospermum sp.) leaves. The solders of Syntermes constitute a food source of great nutritional value: high in proteins and essential amino acids such as trytophan, which is generally limiting in the food insects. Abundant are minerals such as iron and calcium together with micronutrients. Essential fatty acids are well represented. In general, heads of seri are better nutritionally featured than thorax and abdomens (not eaten by the Makiritare but comsumed by the Piaroa Indians).

For the Makiritare (Ye'Kuana) native people of the Alto Orinoco (Venezuela), earthworms (Anellida: Glossoscolecidae) are an important component of the diet. Two species in particular are widely consumed: 'kuru' (Andiorrhinus kuru n. sp.) and 'motto' (Andiorrhinus motto). We analysed eviscerated kuru body proper, and whole and smoked preparations of motto for their content of protein and amino acids, fatty acids and 20 minerals and trace elements. The samples contained large amounts of protein (64.5-72.9% of dry weight), essential amino acids, calcium and iron together with notable quantities of other important elements, indicating that these earthworms contain potentially useful quantities of many nutrients that are critical to the health of the humans who consume them.

For the indigenous populations of Amazonia, invertebrates constitute an important component of the diet. We have information on entomophagy for 39 ethnic groups, about 21,4 per cent of the 182 groups known in the Amazon Basin, but the use of this non conventional food resource is probably much more widespread. We present here a data-base of all the information available for each ethnic group regarding the species included in the diet, the scientific and the ethno name if known, the stage of life-cycle consumed, the manner of preparation and, when known, the host plant. This data-base lists 115 species scientifically identified and 131 ethno names. In addition, we have information about other 384 ethno names, with unsecure link to the Linnean taxonomy suggesting that local knowledge is very extensive. The data-base represents not only an easy to consult resource, but also a support for further research. The knowledge of the relations between indigenous populations and ecosystem is indeed the base for the natural and cultural biodiversity preservation.

This work aimed to compare the allocation of Al, Fe, Cu, Ni, amino acids and sugars in different fractions of root cells of Paspalum notatum with 21 and 120 days old grown in quartz sand. In general younger roots showed a higher content of Al, Fe, Cu Ni, amino acids and sugars, compared to older roots. This can be due to a higher metabolic activity of younger roots and/or to structural changes that can occur with cell ageing. Al and Fe were mainly allocated to fractions with pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose, both in younger and older roots. However, older roots also showed a significant fraction of Al allocated to the intracellular fraction. It seems that older roots were less able to prevent the entry of Al in the cytoplasm. The proportion of Cu was higher in intracellular components, both in younger and older roots, as expected from an essential nutrient. Ni content was very low in older roots and in younger roots it was mainly allocated to the intracellular fraction and to the cell wall polysaccharides fraction. The amino acids were mainly allocated to the cytoplasm and polysaccharide fraction. Although younger roots showed a higher total amount of amino acids compared to older roots, the amino acids profile and allocation, mainly in the cytoplasm polysaccharides, was quite similar. Arabinose, a major component of structural glycoproteins of the primary cell wall matrix, was only detected in younger roots. Thus, it seems that root cells of P. notatum suffered changes in the composition of the cell wall components with ageing. To further understand the structural changes of root cells with ageing and its effect on metal allocation, it is important to quantify several components of the cell wall matrix, namely pectins and glycoproteins.

Natural seedling regeneration and establishment after stand replacing wildfires is influenced by a series of environmental and biological constraints. In this study, we characterized the diversity and structure of the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal community associated with post-fire naturally regenerated maritime pine saplings, and individuate the environmental factors responsible for fungal species distribution. We also identify the main environmental factors responsible for maritime pine regeneration variability and assessed the relation between saplings performance and ECM fungal diversity indices. Fungal species were identified by direct sequencing of internal transcribed spacer regions. Five years after the disturbance event, a total of 30 taxa colonized the pine saplings. The ECM fungal community was dominated by ruderal species of the genus Rhizopogon (present in almost half of the samples). Almost one third of the identified ECM fungal species belonged to the family Thelephoraceae. Typical k-selected species like Amanita pantherina, Boletus aestivalis, Lactarius chrysorrheus, and Russula densifolia were found on pine saplings collected in proximity of unburnt pine trees, in correspondence with low erosion extents. Pine regeneration varied throughout the study areas and was enhanced at higher elevations, in correspondence with moderate slopes, shallower soils, and a reduced cover of ericaceous shrubs and bare ground. These conditions were found in close proximity to patches of pine trees that survived the disturbance event and were previously characterized by a higher pre-fire pine biomass. Even though no correlations were found between saplings performance and ECM fungal diversity indices, common environmental factors (i.e., ericaceous shrub cover, extent of erosion, slope, and soil depth) were responsible for shaping the ECM fungal distribution and for describing most of the explained regeneration variability.

The target rate of afforestation in Ireland over the next 30 years is 20,000 ha per year, which would result in an increase of the forest cover from the current 10% to 17%. In order to promote sustainable forest management practices, it is essential to know the composition and conservation value of habitats where afforestation is planned and the effects of subsequent planting upon biodiversity. The objectives of this study were to investigate changes in vegetation composition and diversity of grasslands 5 years after afforestation with Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and determine the primary ecological and management factors responsible for these changes. Species cover, environmental and management data were collected from 16 afforested and unplanted improved and wet grassland site pairs in Ireland. Our results indicate that 5 years after tree planting, there were significant changes in richness, composition, and abundance of species. Competitive and vigorous grasses were more abundant in planted than in unplanted sites, as were generalist species found in both open and wooded habitats, while small-stature shade-sensitive species were less abundant. Vascular plant species richness and Shannon’s diversity index were higher in unplanted wet grassland, than in the planted sites. Bryophyte species richness was higher in planted improved grassland than in unplanted sites. The differences were primarily the result of the exclusion of grazing, ground preparation, changes in nutrient management and drainage for afforestation. Drainage ditches provided a temporary habitat for less competitive species, but the overall effect of drainage was to reduce the diversity of species dependent on wet conditions. Variance partitioning showed differences in the relative influences of environmental and management variables on biodiversity in the two habitats, probably due to the greater pre-afforestation grazing pressure and fertilisation levels in improved grasslands. The differences in biodiversity between planted and unplanted grasslands indicate that afforestation represents a threat to semi-natural habitats where distinctive and highly localised plant communities could potentially occur.

In tropical areas worldwide, more than 1000 terrestrial species of invertebrates are used as food. For populations of Amazonian areas, different species of insects and other invertebrates serve as nourishing food sources. Here, we document the composition and nutritional quality of some invertebrates consumed in Venezuelan Amazonia, including termites (Isoptera) and earthworms (Glossoscolecidae) eaten by the Ye’Kuana (Makiritare) and caterpillars (Lepidoptera) and grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) consumed by the Yanomamo. Consumption of 100 g of any of these invertebrates contributed 1.2‐9.4 percent of the daily fat requirement and 26‐144 percent of the protein daily requirement for an adult male. The sample of caterpillars regularly eaten by these peoples was rich in beta carotene (provitamin A), and a 100 g ingestion guaranteed 323 percent of the recommended daily intake of vitamin A. The greatest amount of alpha tocopherol was provided by the consumption of the smoked earthworms (36.7%). Earthworms and termites contained high levels of sterols, mainly cholesterol. The consumption of these animals by tropical human populations represents not only an important traditional habit but also, considering their nutritional composition, a substantial contribution to the human diet.

Biodiversity continues to decline in the face of increasing anthropogenic pressures such as habitat destruction, exploitation, pollution and introduction of alien species. Existing global databases of species' threat status or population time series are dominated by charismatic species. The collation of datasets with broad taxonomic and biogeographic extents, and that support computation of a range of biodiversity indicators, is necessary to enable better understanding of historical declines and to project - and avert - future declines. We describe and assess a new database of more than 1.6 million samples from 78 countries representing over 28,000 species, collated from existing spatial comparisons of local-scale biodiversity exposed to different intensities and types of anthropogenic pressures, from terrestrial sites around the world. The database contains measurements taken in 208 (of 814) ecoregions, 13 (of 14) biomes, 25 (of 35) biodiversity hotspots and 16 (of 17) megadiverse countries. The database contains more than 1% of the total number of all species described, and more than 1% of the described species within many taxonomic groups - including flowering plants, gymnosperms, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, beetles, lepidopterans and hymenopterans. The dataset, which is still being added to, is therefore already considerably larger and more representative than those used by previous quantitative models of biodiversity trends and responses. The database is being assembled as part of the PREDICTS project (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems - www.predicts.org.uk). We make site-level summary data available alongside this article. The full database will be publicly available in 2015. The collation of biodiversity datasets with broad taxonomic and biogeographic extents is necessary to understand historical declines and to project - and hopefully avert - future declines. We describe a newly collated database of more than 1.6 million biodiversity measurements from 78 countries representing over 28,000 species, collated from existing spatial comparisons of local-scale biodiversity exposed to different intensities and types of anthropogenic pressures, from terrestrial sites around the world. © 2014 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.