Search

Historical hemispheric atmospheric H2 levels since 1930 were reconstructed using the UCI_2 firn air model and firn air measurements from three sites in Greenland: (NEEM, Summit, and Tunu) and two sites in Antarctica (South Pole and Megadunes). A joint reconstruction based on the two Antarctic sites yields H2 levels monotonically increasing from about 350 ppb in 1900 to 550 ppb in the late 1990’s, levelling off thereafter. These results are similar to individual reconstructions published previously (Patterson et al., 2020; 2021). Reconstruction of the Greenland data is complicated by a systematic bias between Tunu and the other sites. The Tunu reconstruction shows substantially lower historical H2 levels than the other two sites, a difference we attribute to possible bias in the calibration of the Tunu measurements. All three reconstructions show a late 20th century maximum in H2 levels over Greenland. A joint reconstruction of the Greenland data shows H2 levels rising 40 % from 1930–1990, reaching a maximum of 550 ppb. After 1990, reconstructed atmospheric H2 decrease by 6 % over the next 20 years. The reconstruction deviates by at most 4 % from the few available surface air measurements of atmospheric H2 levels over Greenland from 1998–2004. However, the longer instrumental records from sampling sites outside of Greenland show a more rapid decrease and stabilization after 1990 compared to the reconstruction. We explore the possibility that this difference is an artefact caused by the firn air model underestimating pore close-off induced enrichment, evidenced by a mismatch between measured and modelled Ne in firn air. We developed new parameterizations which more accurately capture pore close-off induced enrichment at the Greenland sites. Incorporating those parameterizations into the UCI_2 model yields reconstructions with lower H2 levels throughout the mid-late 20th century and more stable H2 levels during the 1990’s, in better agreement with the flask measurements.

Atmospheric marine particle concentrations impact cloud properties, which strongly impact the amount of solar radiation reflected back into space or absorbed by the ocean surface. While satellites can provide a snapshot of current conditions at the overpass time, models are necessary to simulate temporal variations in both particle and cloud properties. However, poor model accuracy limits the reliability with which these tools can be used to predict future climate. Here, we leverage the comprehensive ocean ecosystem and atmospheric aerosol–cloud dataset obtained during the third deployment of the North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES3). Airborne and ship-based measurements were collected in and around a cold-air outbreak during a 3 d (where d stands for day) intensive operations period from 17–19 September 2017. Cold-air outbreaks are of keen interest for model validation because they are challenging to accurately simulate, which is due, in part, to the numerous feedbacks and sub-grid-scale processes that influence aerosol and cloud evolution. The NAAMES observations are particularly valuable because the flight plans were tailored to lie along Lagrangian trajectories, making it possible to spatiotemporally connect upwind and downwind measurements with the state-of-the-art FLEXible PARTicle (FLEXPART) Lagrangian particle dispersion model and then calculate a rate of change in particle properties. Initial aerosol conditions spanning an east–west, closed-cell-to-clear-air transition region of the cold-air outbreak indicate similar particle concentrations and properties. However, despite the similarities in the aerosol fields, the cloud properties downwind of each region evolved quite differently. One trajectory carried particles through a cold-air outbreak, resulting in a decrease in accumulation mode particle concentration (−42 %) and cloud droplet concentrations, while the other remained outside of the cold-air outbreak and experienced an increase in accumulation mode particle concentrations (+62 %). The variable meteorological conditions between these two adjacent trajectories result from differences in the local sea surface temperature in the Labrador Current and surrounding waters, altering the stability of the marine atmospheric boundary layer. Further comparisons of historical satellite observations indicate that the observed pattern occurs annually in the region, making it an ideal location for future airborne Lagrangian studies tracking the evolution of aerosols and clouds over time under cold-air outbreak conditions.

Author(s): Quinn, PK; Bates, TS; Coffman, DJ; Upchurch, L; Johnson, JE; Moore, R; Ziemba, L; Bell, TG; Saltzman, ES; Graff, J; Behrenfeld, MJ | Abstract: The impact of ocean ecosystems on marine boundary layer aerosols and clouds has been the subject of much research but remains uncertain. Five experiments were recently conducted in the western North Atlantic to assess if the seasonally recurring phytoplankton bloom affects aerosol properties. These experiments include the second Western Atlantic Climate Study and four North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystem Study cruises. Measurements of unheated and heated number size distributions, cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) concentrations, and aerosol composition were used to identify primary and secondary aerosol components that could be related to the state of the bloom. Only periods of clean marine air, as defined by radon, particle number concentrations, aerosol light absorption coefficient, and back trajectories, were included in the analysis. Nonvolatile material was found to be prevalent in the Aitken mode size range after heating to 230°, likely due to downward mixing from the free troposphere. CCN concentrations at 0.1% supersaturation were best correlated (r2 = 0.73) with accumulation mode nss SO4=. Sea spray aerosol was only correlated with CCN during November when bloom accumulation had not yet occurred and dimethylsulfide concentrations were at a minimum. The fraction of CCN attributable to sea spray aerosol was less than 20% during March, May/June, and September, indicating the limited contribution of sea spray aerosol to the CCN population of the western North Atlantic atmosphere. The strongest link between the plankton bloom and aerosol and cloud properties appears to be due to biogenic non-sea salt SO4=.

The atmospheric history of molecular hydrogen (H(2)) from 1852 to 2003 was reconstructed from measurements of firn air collected at Megadunes, Antarctica. The reconstruction shows that H(2) levels in the southern hemisphere were roughly constant near 330 parts per billion (ppb; nmol H(2) mol(−1 )air) during the mid to late 1800s. Over the twentieth century, H(2) levels rose by about 70% to 550 ppb. The reconstruction shows good agreement with the H(2) atmospheric history based on firn air measurements from the South Pole. The broad trends in atmospheric H(2) over the twentieth century can be explained by increased methane oxidation and anthropogenic emissions. The H(2) rise shows no evidence of deceleration during the last quarter of the twentieth century despite an expected reduction in automotive emissions following more stringent regulations. During the late twentieth century, atmospheric CO levels decreased due to a reduction in automotive emissions. It is surprising that atmospheric H(2) did not respond similarly as automotive exhaust is thought to be the dominant source of anthropogenic H(2.) The monotonic late twentieth century rise in H(2) levels is consistent with late twentieth-century flask air measurements from high southern latitudes. An additional unknown source of H(2) is needed to explain twentieth-century trends in atmospheric H(2) and to resolve the discrepancy between bottom-up and top-down estimates of the anthropogenic source term. The firn air–based atmospheric history of H(2) provides a baseline from which to assess human impact on the H(2) cycle over the last 150 y and validate models that will be used to project future trends in atmospheric composition as H(2) becomes a more common energy source.

The atmospheric history of molecular hydrogen (H2) from 1852 to 2003 was reconstructed from measurements of firn air collected at Megadunes, Antarctica. The reconstruction shows that H2 levels in the southern hemisphere were roughly constant near 330 parts per billion (ppb; nmol H2 mol-1 air) during the mid to late 1800s. Over the twentieth century, H2 levels rose by about 70% to 550 ppb. The reconstruction shows good agreement with the H2 atmospheric history based on firn air measurements from the South Pole. The broad trends in atmospheric H2 over the twentieth century can be explained by increased methane oxidation and anthropogenic emissions. The H2 rise shows no evidence of deceleration during the last quarter of the twentieth century despite an expected reduction in automotive emissions following more stringent regulations. During the late twentieth century, atmospheric CO levels decreased due to a reduction in automotive emissions. It is surprising that atmospheric H2 did not respond similarly as automotive exhaust is thought to be the dominant source of anthropogenic H2. The monotonic late twentieth century rise in H2 levels is consistent with late twentieth-century flask air measurements from high southern latitudes. An additional unknown source of H2 is needed to explain twentieth-century trends in atmospheric H2 and to resolve the discrepancy between bottom-up and top-down estimates of the anthropogenic source term. The firn air-based atmospheric history of H2 provides a baseline from which to assess human impact on the H2 cycle over the last 150 y and validate models that will be used to project future trends in atmospheric composition as H2 becomes a more common energy source.

Atmospheric marine particle concentrations impact cloud properties, which strongly impact the amount of solar radiation reflected back into space or absorbed by the ocean surface. While satellites can provide a snapshot of current conditions at the overpass time, models are necessary to simulate temporal variations in both particle and cloud properties. However, poor model accuracy limits the reliability with which these tools can be used to predict future climate. Here, we leverage the comprehensive ocean ecosystem and atmospheric aerosol-cloud data set obtained during the third deployment of the North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES3). Airborne and ship-based measurements were collected in and around a cold-air outbreak during a three-day intensive operations period from September 17–19, 2017. Cold-air outbreaks are of keen interest for model validation because they are challenging to accurately simulate, which is due, in part, to the numerous feedbacks and sub-grid scale processes that influence aerosol and cloud evolution. The NAAMES observations are particularly valuable because the flight plans were tailored to lie along Lagrangian trajectories, making it possible to spatiotemporally connect upwind and downwind measurements with the state-of-the-art FLEXible PARTicle (FLEXPART) Lagrangian particle dispersion model and then calculate a rate of change in particle properties. Initial aerosol conditions spanning an east-west, closed-cell cloudy to clear air transition region of the cold-air outbreak indicate similar particle concentrations and properties. However, despite the similarities in the aerosol fields, the cloud properties downwind of each region evolved quite differently. One trajectory carried particles through a cold-air outbreak, resulting in a decrease in accumulation mode particle concentration (−42 %) and cloud droplet concentrations, while the other remained outside of the cold-air outbreak and experienced an increase in accumulation mode particle concentrations (+62 %). The variable meteorological conditions between these two adjacent trajectories result from differences in the local sea surface temperature altering stability of the marine atmospheric boundary layer because of the location of the Labrador Current. Further comparisons of historical satellite observations indicate that the observed pattern occurs annually in the region, making it an ideal location for future airborne Lagrangian studies tracking the evolution of aerosols and clouds over time under cold air outbreak conditions.

The summertime high Arctic is an extremely low-aerosol region, where even small inputs of particles can have significant impacts on cloud formation and therefore on the surface energy budget. The relative importance of new particle formation from gas phase precursors and primary sea spray production in this region remains uncertain, as does the role of atmospheric transport. We made direct, time-resolved composition measurements of Aitken mode (~20-60 nm diameter) aerosol over the high Arctic pack ice in August-September 2018, including during an intense Aitken mode formation event on August 30-31. The event particles contained both primary sea spray materials (sodium, potassium, and polysaccharide-like organics) and secondary components (non-sea-salt sulfate, methanesulfonic acid, non-sea-salt iodine, and secondary organics), most of which could be quantified on the basis of analytical standards. The composition is consistent with primary sea spray that had been atmospherically processed, and the aerosol size distribution dynamics imply the action of a process by which larger atmospheric particles or aggregates broke up to form smaller particles. Hypotheses to explain the results will be discussed.

Surface ocean dimethylsulfide (DMS) was measured during four shipboard field campaigns conducted during the North Atlantic Aerosol and Marine Ecosystem Study (NAAMES). Variations in surface seawater DMS are discussed in relation to biological and physical observations. The interplay of biomass and physics influences DMS concentrations at regional/seasonal scales and at smaller spatial and shorter temporal scales. Observations are compared with the best-available climatological predictions of seawater DMS, including output from an empirical algorithm and a neural network model. The input terms common to the algorithm and neural network approaches are biological (chlorophyll) and physical (mixed layer depth, photosynthetically active radiation, seawater temperature). DMS concentrations tend to be under-predicted and the episodic occurrence of higher DMS concentrations is poorly predicted. The choice of climatological seawater DMS product makes a substantial impact on the estimated DMS flux into the North Atlantic atmosphere. These results suggest that additional input terms are needed to improve the predictive capability of current state-of-the-art approaches to estimating seawater DMS.

Author(s): Nicewonger, MR; Aydin, M; Prather, MJ; Saltzman, ES | Abstract: Biomass burning is an important component of the Earth system in terms of global biogeochemistry, atmospheric composition, climate, terrestrial ecology, and land use. This study examines published ice core trace gas measurements of acetylene, ethane, and methane, which have been used as proxies for paleofire emissions. We investigate the consistency of these records for the past 1,000nyears in terms of (1) temporal trends in global fire emissions and (2) quantitative estimates for changes in global burning (dry matter burned per year). Three-dimensional transport and box models were used to construct emissions scenarios for the trace gases consistent with each ice core record. Burning histories were inferred from trace gas emissions by accounting for biome-specific emission factors for each trace gas. The temporal trends in fire inferred from the trace gases are in reasonable agreement, with a large decline in biomass burning emissions from the Medieval Period (MP: 1000–1500nCE) to the Little Ice Age (LIA: 1650–1750nCE). However, the three trace gas ice core records do not yield a consistent fire history, even assuming dramatic (and unrealistic) changes in the spatial distribution of fire and biomes. Substantial changes in other factors such as meteorological transport or atmospheric photochemical lifetimes appear to be required to reconcile the trace gas records.

Carbonyl sulfide (COS) was measured in firn air collected during seven different field campaigns carried out at four different sites in Greenland and Antarctica between 2001 and 2015. A Bayesian pr...

Acetone is one of the most abundant oxygenated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. The oceans impose a strong control on atmospheric acetone, yet the oceanic fluxes of acetone remain poorly constrained. In this work, the global budget of acetone is evaluated using two global models: CAM‐chem and GEOS‐Chem. CAM‐chem uses an online air‐sea exchange framework to calculate the bidirectional oceanic acetone fluxes, which is coupled to a data‐oriented machine‐learning approach. The machine‐learning algorithm is trained using a global suite of seawater acetone measurements. GEOS‐Chem uses a fixed surface seawater concentration of acetone to calculate the oceanic fluxes. Both model simulations are compared to airborne observations from a recent global‐scale, multiseasonal campaign, the NASA Atmospheric Tomography Mission (ATom). We find that both CAM‐chem and GEOS‐Chem capture the measured acetone vertical distributions in the remote atmosphere reasonably well. The combined observational and modeling analysis suggests that (i) the ocean strongly regulates the atmospheric budget of acetone. The tropical and subtropical oceans are mostly a net source of acetone, while the high‐latitude oceans are a net sink. (ii) CMIP6 anthropogenic emission inventory may underestimate acetone and/or its precursors in the Northern Hemisphere. (iii) The MEGAN biogenic emissions model may overestimate acetone and/or its precursors, and/or the biogenic oxidation mechanisms may overestimate the acetone yields. (iv) The models consistently overestimate acetone in the upper troposphere‐lower stratosphere over the Southern Ocean in austral winter. (v) Acetone contributes up to 30–40% of hydroxyl radical production in the tropical upper troposphere/lower stratosphere.

Author(s): Patterson, JD; Aydin, M; Crotwell, AM; Petron, G; Severinghaus, JP; Saltzman, ES | Abstract: Molecular hydrogen (H2) is an abundant and reactive constituent of Earth's atmosphere, with links to climate and air quality. Anthropogenic emissions of H2 are expected to rise as the use of H2 as an energy source increases. Documenting past variations in atmospheric H2 will help to validate current understanding of the global H2 budget. The modern instrumental record begins in the 1980s; there is little information about atmospheric H2 prior to that time. Here, we use firn air measurements from a 2001 South Pole campaign to reconstruct atmospheric H2 levels over the 20th century. Inversion of the measurements indicates that H2 over South Pole has increased from 350–540nppb from 1910–2000. A biogeochemical box model indicates that the atmospheric burden of H2 increased by 37% over that time. The rise in H2 is consistent with increasing H2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and increasing atmospheric production from methane oxidation.

The composition of organic compounds in marine aerosols and the relative contributions of primary and secondary organic compounds remain uncertain. We report results from a novel approach to characterize and quantify organic components of the marine aerosol. Size-segregated discrete aerosol filter samples were collected at sea in the North Atlantic from both ambient aerosol and artificially generated primary sea spray over four cruises timed to capture the seasonal phytoplankton bloom dynamics. Samples were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), extracted into water, and analyzed by offline thermal desorption chemical ionization mass spectrometry (TDCIMS) and ion chromatography (IC). A positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis identified several characteristic aerosol components in the TDCIMS mass spectra. Among these is a “polysaccharide factor” representing about 10–30 % of the submicron organic aerosol mass. An unquantified “recalcitrant factor” of highly thermally stable organics showed significant correlation with FTIR-measured alcohol groups, consistently the main organic functional group associated with sea spray aerosol. We hypothesize that this factor represents recalcitrant dissolved organic matter in seawater. The recalcitrant factor showed little seasonal variability in its contribution to primary marine aerosol. The relative contribution of polysaccharides was highest in late spring and summer in the smallest particle size fraction characterized (

The emission of sea spray aerosol (SSA) and dimethylsulfide (DMS) from the ocean results in marine boundary layer aerosol particles that can impact Earth’s radiation balance by directly scattering solar radiation and by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), thereby altering cloud properties. The surface ocean is projected to warm by 1.3 to 2.8°C globally over the 21st century. Impacts of this warming on plankton blooms, ocean ecosystems, and ocean-to-atmosphere fluxes of aerosols and their precursor gases are highly uncertain. A fundamental understanding of linkages between surface ocean ecosystems and ocean-derived aerosols is required to address this uncertainty. One approach for improved understandings of these linkages is simultaneous measurements of relevant surface ocean and aerosol properties in an ocean region with seasonally varying plankton blooms and a minimally polluted overlying atmosphere. The western North Atlantic hosts the largest annual phytoplankton bloom in the global ocean with a large spatial and seasonal variability in plankton biomass and composition. Periods of low aerosol number concentrations associated with unpolluted air masses allow for the detection of linkages between ocean ecosystems and ocean-derived aerosol. Five experiments were conducted in the western North Atlantic between 2014 and 2018 with the objective of finding links between the bloom and marine aerosols. These experiments include the second Western Atlantic Climate Study (WACS-2) and four North Atlantic Aerosol and Marine Ecosystem Study (NAAMES) cruises. This series of cruises was the first time the western North Atlantic bloom was systematically sampled during every season with extensive ocean and atmosphere measurements able to assess how changes in the state of the bloom might impact ocean-derived aerosol properties. Measurements of unheated and heated number size distributions, cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations, and aerosol composition were used to identify primary and secondary aerosol components that could be related to the state of the bloom. Only periods of clean marine air, as defined by radon, particle number concentration, aerosol light absorption coefficient, and back trajectories, were included in the analysis. CCN concentrations at 0.1% supersaturation were best correlated (r2 = 0.73) with accumulation mode nss SO4=. Sea spray aerosol (SSA) was only correlated with CCN during November when bloom accumulation had not yet occurred and dimethylsulfide (DMS) concentrations were at a minimum. The fraction of CCN attributable to SSA was less than 20% during March, May/June, and September, indicating the limited contribution of SSA to the CCN population of the western North Atlantic atmosphere. The strongest link between the plankton bloom and aerosol and cloud properties appears to be due to biogenic non-seasalt SO4=.

Atmospheric methanethiol (MeSHa), dimethyl sulfide (DMSa) and acetone (acetonea) were measured over biologically productive frontal waters in the remote southwest Pacific Ocean in summertime 2012 during the Surface Ocean Aerosol Production (SOAP) voyage. MeSHa mixing ratios varied from below the detection limit (< 10 ppt) up to 65 ppt and were 3 %–36 % of parallel DMSa mixing ratios. MeSHa and DMSa were correlated over the voyage (R2=0.3, slope = 0.07) with a stronger correlation over a coccolithophore-dominated phytoplankton bloom (R2=0.5, slope 0.13). The diurnal cycle for MeSHa shows similar behaviour to DMSa with mixing ratios varying by a factor of ∼ 2 according to time of day with the minimum levels of both MeSHa and DMSa occurring at around 16:00 LT (local time, all times in this paper are in local time). A positive flux of MeSH out of the ocean was calculated for three different nights and ranged from 3.5 to 5.8 µmol m−2 d−1, corresponding to 14 %–24 % of the DMS flux (MeSH ∕ (MeSH + DMS)). Spearman rank correlations with ocean biogeochemical parameters showed a moderate-to-strong positive, highly significant relationship between both MeSHa and DMSa with seawater DMS (DMSsw) and a moderate correlation with total dimethylsulfoniopropionate (total DMSP). A positive correlation of acetonea with water temperature and negative correlation with nutrient concentrations are consistent with reports of acetone production in warmer subtropical waters. Positive correlations of acetonea with cryptophyte and eukaryotic phytoplankton numbers, and high-molecular-weight sugars and chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM), suggest an organic source. This work points to a significant ocean source of MeSH, highlighting the need for further studies into the distribution and fate of MeSH, and it suggests links between atmospheric acetone levels and biogeochemistry over the mid-latitude ocean. In addition, an intercalibration of DMSa at ambient levels using three independently calibrated instruments showed ∼ 15 %–25 % higher mixing ratios from an atmospheric pressure ionisation chemical ionisation mass spectrometer (mesoCIMS) compared to a gas chromatograph with a sulfur chemiluminescence detector (GC-SCD) and proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS). Some differences were attributed to the DMSa gradient above the sea surface and differing approaches of integrated versus discrete measurements. Remaining discrepancies were likely due to different calibration scales, suggesting that further investigation of the stability and/or absolute calibration of DMS standards used at sea is warranted.

Author(s): Porter, JG; de Bruyn, WJ; Miller, SD; Saltzman, ES | Abstract: The deposition of soluble trace gases to the sea surface is not well studied due to a lack of flux measurements over the ocean. Here we report simultaneous air/sea eddy covariance flux measurements of water vapor, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and momentum from a coastal North Atlantic pier. Gas transfer velocities were on average about 20% lower for SO2 than for H2O. This difference is attributed to the difference in molecular diffusivity between the two molecules (DSO2/DH2O = 0.5), in reasonable agreement with bulk parameterizations in air/sea gas models. This study demonstrates that it is possible to observe the effect of molecular diffusivity on air-side resistance to gas transfer. The slope of observed relationship between gas transfer velocity and friction velocity is slightly smaller than predicted by gas transfer models, possibly due to wind/wave interactions that are unaccounted for in current models.

Author(s): Nicewonger, MR; Aydin, M; Prather, MJ; Saltzman, ES | Abstract: Acetylene is a short-lived trace gas produced during combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, and biofuels. Biomass burning is likely the only major source of acetylene in the preindustrial atmosphere, making ice core acetylene a powerful tool for reconstructing paleofire emissions. Here we present a 2,000-year atmospheric record of acetylene reconstructed from analysis of air bubbles trapped in Greenland and Antarctic ice cores and infer pyrogenic acetylene emissions using a chemistry transport model. From 0 to 1500 CE, Antarctic acetylene averages 36n±n1npmolnmol−1 (meann±n1 SE), roughly double the annual mean over Antarctica today. Antarctic acetylene declines during the Little Ice Age by over 50% to 17n±n2npmolnmol−1 from 1650 to 1750 CE. Acetylene over Greenland declines less dramatically over the same period. Modeling results suggest that pyrogenic acetylene emissions during 1000–1500 CE were sustained at rates significantly greater than modern day and declined by over 50% during the 1650–1750 CE period.

Biomass burning drives changes in greenhouse gases, climate-forcing aerosols, and global atmospheric chemistry. There is controversy about the magnitude and timing of changes in biomass burning emissions on millennial time scales from preindustrial to present and about the relative importance of climate change and human activities as the underlying cause. Biomass burning is one of two notable sources of ethane in the preindustrial atmosphere. Here, we present ice core ethane measurements from Antarctica and Greenland that contain information about changes in biomass burning emissions since 1000 CE (Common Era). The biomass burning emissions of ethane during the Medieval Period (1000-1500 CE) were higher than present day and declined sharply to a minimum during the cooler Little Ice Age (1600-1800 CE). Assuming that preindustrial atmospheric reactivity and transport were the same as in the modern atmosphere, we estimate that biomass burning emissions decreased by 30 to 45% from the Medieval Period to the Little Ice Age. The timing and magnitude of this decline in biomass burning emissions is consistent with that inferred from ice core methane stable carbon isotope ratios but inconsistent with histories based on sedimentary charcoal and ice core carbon monoxide measurements. This study demonstrates that biomass burning emissions have exceeded modern levels in the past and may be highly sensitive to changes in climate.

Direct measurements of marine dimethylsulfide (DMS) fluxes are sparse, particularly in the Southern Ocean. The Surface Ocean Aerosol Production (SOAP) voyage in February–March 2012 examined the distribution and flux of DMS in a biologically active frontal system in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Three distinct phytoplankton blooms were studied with oceanic DMS concentrations as high as 25 nmol L−1. Measurements of DMS fluxes were made using two independent methods: the eddy covariance (EC) technique using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization–mass spectrometry (API-CIMS) and the gradient flux (GF) technique from an autonomous catamaran platform. Catamaran flux measurements are relatively unaffected by airflow distortion and are made close to the water surface, where gas gradients are largest. Flux measurements were complemented by near-surface hydrographic measurements to elucidate physical factors influencing DMS emission. Individual DMS fluxes derived by EC showed significant scatter and, at times, consistent departures from the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment gas transfer algorithm (COAREG). A direct comparison between the two flux methods was carried out to separate instrumental effects from environmental effects and showed good agreement with a regression slope of 0.96 (r2= 0.89). A period of abnormal downward atmospheric heat flux enhanced near-surface ocean stratification and reduced turbulent exchange, during which GF and EC transfer velocities showed good agreement but modelled COAREG values were significantly higher. The transfer velocity derived from near-surface ocean turbulence measurements on a spar buoy compared well with the COAREG model in general but showed less variation. This first direct comparison between EC and GF fluxes of DMS provides confidence in compilation of flux estimates from both techniques, as well as in the stable periods when the observations are not well predicted by the COAREG model.

Simultaneous air–sea fluxes and concentration differences of dimethylsulfide (DMS) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were measured during a summertime North Atlantic cruise in 2011. This data set reveals significant differences between the gas transfer velocities of these two gases (Δkw) over a range of wind speeds up to 21 m s−1. These differences occur at and above the approximate wind speed threshold when waves begin breaking. Whitecap fraction (a proxy for bubbles) was also measured and has a positive relationship with Δkw, consistent with enhanced bubble-mediated transfer of the less soluble CO2 relative to that of the more soluble DMS. However, the correlation of Δkw with whitecap fraction is no stronger than with wind speed. Models used to estimate bubble-mediated transfer from in situ whitecap fraction underpredict the observations, particularly at intermediate wind speeds. Examining the differences between gas transfer velocities of gases with different solubilities is a useful way to detect the impact of bubble-mediated exchange. More simultaneous gas transfer measurements of different solubility gases across a wide range of oceanic conditions are needed to understand the factors controlling the magnitude and scaling of bubble-mediated gas exchange.

Author(s): Esters, L; Landwehr, S; Sutherland, G; Bell, TG; Christensen, KH; Saltzman, ES; Miller, SD; Ward, B | Abstract: The air-sea gas transfer velocity k is frequently estimated as an empirical function of wind speed. However, it is widely recognized that k depends on processes other than wind speed alone. The small-eddy model, which describes periodic events of small eddies disturbing the sea surface with water from below, suggests a direct relation between k and the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy ϵ at the air-sea interface. This relation has been proven both in laboratories and in the field in various freshwater and coastal environments, but to date has not been verified in open ocean conditions. Here, concurrent North Atlantic field observations of ϵ and eddy covariance measurements of DMS and CO2 air-sea gas flux are presented. Using ϵ measurements, we compare the small-eddy model at various depths to previously published observations. Extrapolating the measured ϵ profiles to the thickness of the viscous sublayer allows us to formulate a function of k that depends solely on the water side friction velocity u*w, which can be inferred from direct eddy covariance measurements of the air-side friction velocity u*a. These field observations are generally consistent with the theoretical small-eddy model. Utilizing a variable Schmidt number exponent in the model, rather than a constant value of 1/2 yields improved agreement between model and observations.

Reconstruction of past changes in Arctic sea ice extent may be critical for understanding its future evolution. Methanesulfonate (MSA) and bromine concentrations preserved in ice cores have both been proposed as indicators of past sea ice conditions. In this study, two ice cores from central and north-eastern Greenland were analysed at sub-annual resolution for MSA (CH3SO3H) and bromine, covering the time period 1750–2010. We examine correlations between ice core MSA and the HadISST1 ICE sea ice dataset and consult back trajectories to infer the likely source regions. A strong correlation between the low-frequency MSA and bromine records during pre-industrial times indicates that both chemical species are likely linked to processes occurring on or near sea ice in the same source regions. The positive correlation between ice core MSA and bromine persists until the mid-20th century, when the acidity of Greenland ice begins to increase markedly due to increased fossil fuel emissions. After that time, MSA levels decrease as a result of declining sea ice extent but bromine levels increase. We consider several possible explanations and ultimately suggest that increased acidity, specifically nitric acid, of snow on sea ice stimulates the release of reactive Br from sea ice, resulting in increased transport and deposition on the Greenland ice sheet.

Atmospheric methanethiol (MeSHa), dimethyl sulfide (DMSa) and acetone (acetonea) were measured over biologically productive frontal waters in the remote South West Pacific Ocean in summertime 2012 during the Surface Ocean Aerosol Production (SOAP) voyage. MeSHa mixing ratios varied from below detection limit (a mixing ratios. MeSHa and DMSa were correlated over the voyage (R2 = 0.3, slope = 0.07) with a stronger correlation over a coccolithophore-dominated phytoplankton bloom (R2 = 0.5, slope 0.13). The diurnal cycle for MeSHa shows similar behaviour to DMSa with mixing ratios varying by a factor of ~ 2 according to time of day with the minimum levels of both MeSHa and DMSa occurring at around 16:00 hrs. A positive flux of MeSH was calculated for 3 different nights and ranged from 3.5–5.8 µmol m−2 day−1 corresponding to 14–24 % of the DMS flux (MeSH / (MeSH + DMS). Spearman rank correlations with ocean biogeochemical parameters showed a moderate to strong positive and highly significant relationship between both MeSHa and DMSa with seawater DMS (DMSsw), and a moderate correlation with total dimethylsulfoniopropionate (total DMSP). A positive correlation of acetonea with water temperature and negative correlation with nutrient concentrations is consistent with reports of acetone production in warmer subtropical waters. Positive correlations of acetonea with cryptophyte and eukaryotic phytoplankton numbers, and high molecular weight sugars and Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), suggest an organic source. This work points to a significant ocean source of MeSH, highlighting the need for further studies into the distribution and fate of MeSH, and suggests links between atmospheric acetone levels and biogeochemistry over the mid-latitude ocean. In addition, an intercalibration of DMSa at ambient levels using three independently calibrated instruments showed ~ 15–25 % higher mixing ratios from an Atmospheric Pressure Ionisation-Chemical Ionisation Mass Spectrometer (mesoCIMS) compared to a Gas Chromatograph with Sulfur Chemiluminescence Detector (GC-SCD) and proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer (PTR-MS). PTR-MS and mesoCIMS showed similar temporal behaviour with differences in ambient mixing ratios likely influenced by the DMSa gradient above the sea surface.

The North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES) is an interdisciplinary investigation to improve understanding of Earth's ocean ecosystem-aerosol-cloud system. Specific overarching science objectives for NAAMES are to (1) characterize plankton ecosystem properties during primary phases of the annual cycle and their dependence on environmental forcings, (2) determine how these phases interact to recreate each year the conditions for an annual plankton bloom, and (3) resolve how remote marine aerosols and boundary layer clouds are influenced by plankton ecosystems. Four NAAMES field campaigns were conducted in the western subarctic Atlantic between November 2015 and April 2018, with each campaign targeting specific seasonal events in the annual plankton cycle. A broad diversity of measurements were collected during each campaign, including ship, aircraft, autonomous float and drifter, and satellite observations. Here, we present an overview of NAAMES science motives, experimental design, and measurements. We then briefly describe conditions and accomplishments during each of the four field campaigns and provide information on how to access NAAMES data. The intent of this manuscript is to familiarize the broad scientific community with NAAMES and to provide a common reference overview of the project for upcoming publications.

Marine phytoplankton have a crucial role in the modulation of marine-based food webs1, fishery yields2 and the global drawdown of atmospheric carbon dioxide3. However, owing to sparse measurements before satellite monitoring in the twenty-first century, the long-term response of planktonic stocks to climate forcing is unknown. Here, using a continuous, multi-century record of subarctic Atlantic marine productivity, we show that a marked 10 ± 7% decline in net primary productivity has occurred across this highly productive ocean basin over the past two centuries. We support this conclusion by the application of a marine-productivity proxy, established using the signal of the planktonic-derived aerosol methanesulfonic acid, which is commonly identified across an array of Greenlandic ice cores. Using contemporaneous satellite-era observations, we demonstrate the use of this signal as a robust and high-resolution proxy for past variations in spatially integrated marine productivity. We show that the initiation of declining subarctic Atlantic productivity broadly coincides with the onset of Arctic surface warming4, and that productivity strongly covaries with regional sea-surface temperatures and basin-wide gyre circulation strength over recent decades. Taken together, our results suggest that the decline in industrial-era productivity may be evidence of the predicted5 collapse of northern Atlantic planktonic stocks in response to a weakened Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation6–8. Continued weakening of this Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, as projected for the twenty-first century9,10, may therefore result in further productivity declines across this globally relevant region. A continuous, multi-century record of subarctic Atlantic marine productivity shows that a marked decline in net primary productivity has occurred across the subarctic Atlantic basin over the past two centuries.

The flux of dimethylsulfide (DMS) to the atmosphere is generally inferred using water sampled at or below 2 m depth, thereby excluding any concentration anomalies at the air–sea interface. Two independent techniques were used to assess the potential for near-surface DMS enrichment to influence DMS emissions and also identify the factors influencing enrichment. DMS measurements in productive frontal waters over the Chatham Rise, east of New Zealand, did not identify any significant gradients between 0.01 and 6 m in sub-surface seawater, whereas DMS enrichment in the sea-surface microlayer was variable, with a mean enrichment factor (EF; the concentration ratio between DMS in the sea-surface microlayer and in sub-surface water) of 1.7. Physical and biological factors influenced sea-surface microlayer DMS concentration, with high enrichment (EF > 1.3) only recorded in a dinoflagellate-dominated bloom, and associated with low to medium wind speeds and near-surface temperature gradients. On occasion, high DMS enrichment preceded periods when the air–sea DMS flux, measured by eddy covariance, exceeded the flux calculated using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coupled-Ocean Atmospheric Response Experiment (COARE) parameterized gas transfer velocities and measured sub-surface seawater DMS concentrations. The results of these two independent approaches suggest that air–sea emissions may be influenced by near-surface DMS production under certain conditions, and highlight the need for further study to constrain the magnitude and mechanisms of DMS production in the sea-surface microlayer.

We measured carbonyl sulfide (COS) in air extracted from ice core samples from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide, Antarctica, with the deepest sample dated to 54,300 years before present. These are the first ice core COS measurements spanning the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the last glacial/interglacial transition, and the early Holocene. The WAIS Divide measurements from the LGM and the last transition are the first COS measurements in air extracted from full clathrate (bubble-free) ice. This study also includes new COS measurements from Taylor Dome, Antarctica, including some in bubbly glacial ice that are concurrent with the WAIS Divide data from clathrate glacial ice. COS hydrolyzes in ice core air bubbles, and the recovery of an atmospheric record requires correcting for this loss. The data presented here suggest that the in situ hydrolysis of COS is significantly slower in clathrate ice than in bubbly ice. The clathrate ice measurements are corrected for the hydrolysis loss during the time spent as bubbly ice only. The corrected WAIS Divide record indicates that atmospheric COS was 250–300 parts per trillion (ppt) during the LGM and declined by 80–100 ppt during the last glacial/interglacial transition to a minimum of 160–210 ppt at the beginning of the Holocene. This decline was likely caused by an increase in the gross primary productivity of terrestrial plants, with a possible contribution from a reduction in ocean sources. COS levels were above 300 ppt in the late Holocene, indicating that large changes in the COS biogeochemical cycle occurred during the Holocene.

Ethane levels were measured in air extracted from Greenland and Antarctic ice cores ranging in age from 994 to 1918 Common Era (C.E.) There is good temporal overlap between the two data sets from 1600 to 1750 C.E. with ethane levels stable at 397 ± 28 parts per trillion (ppt) (±2 standard error (s.e.)) over Greenland and 103 ± 9 ppt over Antarctica. The observed north/south interpolar ratio of ethane (3.9 ± 0.1, 1σ) implies considerably more ethane emissions in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, suggesting geologic ethane sources contribute significantly to the preindustrial ethane budget. Box model simulations based on these data constrain the global geologic emissions of ethane to 2.2–3.5 Tg yr−1 and biomass burning emissions to 1.2–2.5 Tg yr−1 during the preindustrial era. The results suggest biomass burning emissions likely increased since the preindustrial period. Biomass burning and geologic outgassing are also sources of atmospheric methane. The results place constraints on preindustrial methane emissions from these sources.

This study uncovers an early 1990s change in the relationships between El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and two leading modes of the Southern Hemisphere (SH) atmospheric variability: the southern annular mode (SAM) and the Pacific–South American (PSA) pattern. During austral spring, while the PSA maintained a strong correlation with ENSO throughout the period 1948–2014, the SAM–ENSO correlation changed from being weak before the early 1990s to being strong afterward. Through the ENSO connection, PSA and SAM became more in-phase correlated after the early 1990s. The early 1990s is also the time when ENSO changed from being dominated by the eastern Pacific (EP) type to being dominated by the central Pacific (CP) type. Analyses show that, while the EP ENSO can excite only the PSA, the CP ENSO can excite both the SAM and PSA through tropospheric and stratospheric pathway mechanisms. The more in-phase relationship between SAM and PSA impacted the post-1990s Antarctic climate in at least two aspects: 1) a stronger Antarctic sea ice dipole structure around the Amundsen–Bellingshausen Seas due to intensified geopotential height anomalies over the region and 2) a shift in the phase relationships of surface air temperature anomalies among East Antarctica, West Antarctica, and the Antarctic Peninsula. These findings imply that ENSO–Antarctic climate relations depend on the dominant ENSO type and that ENSO forcing has become more important to the Antarctic sea ice and surface air temperature variability in the past two decades and will in the coming decades if the dominance of CP ENSO persists.

In this study, vanillic acid was measured in the Tunu ice core from northeastern Greenland in samples covering the past 1700 years. Vanillic acid is an aerosol-borne aromatic methoxy acid, produced by the combustion of lignin during biomass burning. Air mass trajectory analysis indicates that North American boreal forests are likely the major source region for biomass burning aerosols deposited to the ice core site. Vanillic acid levels in the Tunu ice core range from

Deposition to the sea surface is a major atmospheric loss pathway for many important trace gases, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2). The air–sea transfer of SO2 is controlled entirely on the atmospheric side of the air–sea interface due to high effective solubility and other physical–chemical properties. There have been few direct field measurements of such fluxes due to the challenges associated with making fast-response measurements of highly soluble trace gases at very low ambient levels. In this study, we report direct eddy covariance air–sea flux measurements of SO2, sensible heat, water vapor, and momentum. The measurements were made over shallow coastal waters from the Scripps Pier, La Jolla, CA, using negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry as the SO2 sensor. The observed transfer velocities for SO2, sensible heat, water vapor, and momentum and their wind speed dependences indicate that SO2 fluxes can be reliably measured using this approach. As expected, the transfer velocities for SO2, sensible heat, and water vapor are lower than that for momentum, demonstrating the contribution of molecular diffusion to the overall air-side resistance to gas transfer. Furthermore, transfer velocities of SO2 were lower than those of sensible heat and water vapor when observed simultaneously. This result is attributed to diffusive resistance in the interfacial layer of the air–sea interface.