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The emporion of Pech Maho was destroyed after a warlike event at the end of the third century BC. Shortly after that, around 200 BC, the site was resettled. This reuse is characterised above all by massive deposits of equid carcasses in various locations around the city. The conditions of these deposits are investigated in this paper. We focus on examining several biological parameters (weight, age and sex) of the equid population, as well as their feeding habits, using three different proxies: stable isotope, dental meso- and microwear. This interdisciplinarity gives us access to the overall equid diet, as well as to the diet during the last phases of their lives. This population is largely dominated by small size young adult males. Isotopic as well as morphometric analyses indicate that they were bred in various locations before being brought to Pech Maho. Dental wear analyses show that they experienced the same feeding throughout their lives and just before their death. The animals were all slaughtered within a short period of time. This study illustrates the advantages of combining proxies in order to enhance our understanding of the life and death conditions of Iron Age equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Small bowel obstruction (SBO) is a significant cause of surgery in adult horses presenting with colic pain. SBOs often require resection and anastomosis. While various techniques for intestinal anastomoses have been developed, it remains uncertain if any fully meet our clinical needs. Objective: To conduct a scoping review of publications on anastomosis techniques and outcomes for the treatment of SBO. Study design: Scoping review. Methods: A literature review was conducted using the CAB, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed databases. Peer‐reviewed scientific articles in English, published between 1992 and 2023, were included. A quality assessment was performed for potentially eligible articles. Experimental studies, case reports, and case series with less than five cases were excluded and relevant data on study methods and sample size were extracted and charted from remaining articles. Anastomosis type and outcome were reported for articles considered potentially eligible for meta‐analysis. Articles in which only overall outcome was reported or details on type of anastomosis were not reported were excluded for the final charting. Results: Of 3024 articles, 210 underwent a quality assessment. The most common study designs were case reports and case series (64.3%), followed by experimental studies (17.1%). After further exclusions, 104 articles met the inclusion criteria. In only 42 articles detailed data on type of anastomosis and relative outcome were reported. A total of 23 anastomosis types were reported for the treatment of SBO, with 6 different outcomes evaluated. Both short‐ and long‐term survival rates consistently exceed 70% for all types of anastomosis (jejuno‐jejunal, jejuno‐ileal, and jejunocaecal). Main limitation: Non‐English language studies and conference proceedings were excluded. Conclusion: The body of literature focused on surgical treatment for SBO exhibits low‐quality evidence. Several techniques of anastomosis were described for different pathologies. However, there is a lack of homogeneity in reporting outcome for each surgical technique. Furthermore, outcomes considered varied significantly among studies and were sometimes poorly reported, although success rates are generally high. Overall, there is a need for better‐structured studies on existing and commonly used techniques before comparing techniques and exploring other innovative approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The shift of the horse breeding sector from agricultural to leisure and sports purposes led to a decrease in local breeds’ population size due to the loss of their original breeding purposes. Most of the Italian breeds must adapt to modern market demands, and gait traits are suitable phenotypes to help this process. Inertial measurement unit (IMU) technology can be used to objectively assess them. This work aims to investigate on IMU recorded data (i) the influence of environmental factors and biometric measurements, (ii) their repeatability, (iii) the correlation with judge evaluations, and (iv) their predictive value. Material and methods: The Equisense Motion S® was used to collect phenotypes on 135 horses, Bardigiano (101) and Murgese (34) and the data analysis was conducted using R (v.4.1.2). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to assess the effects of biometric measurements and environmental and animal factors on the traits. Results and discussion: Variations in several traits depending on the breed were identified, highlighting different abilities among Bardigiano and Murgese horses. Repeatability of horse performance was assessed on a subset of horses, with regularity and elevation at walk being the traits with the highest repeatability (0.63 and 0.72). The positive correlation between judge evaluations and sensor data indicates judges’ ability to evaluate overall gait quality. Three different algorithms were employed to predict the judges score from the IMU measurements: Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM), and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN). A high variability was observed in the accuracy of the SVM model, ranging from 55 to 100% while the other two models showed higher consistency, with accuracy ranging from 74 to 100% for the GBM and from 64 to 88% for the KNN. Overall, the GBM model exhibits the highest accuracy and the lowest error. In conclusion, integrating IMU technology into horse performance evaluation offers valuable insights, with implications for breeding and training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Objectives Animals Methods Results Conclusions and Clinical Importance Limited information is available on gastric diseases in neonatal foals as compared with extensive studies in young, adult, and geriatric horses. Reports on fetuses are scarce.Assess at necropsy stomachs of horse, donkey and mule fetuses in the third trimester of gestation to characterize lesions present during intrauterine life.Forty‐six fetal stomachs from both sexes (21 horses, 21 donkeys, and 4 mules) in the third trimester of gestation were collected from a processing plant immediately after slaughter.Measurements of longitudinal and transverse axes, weight and volume and gastric fluid pH were taken, and glandular and squamous mucosae were inspected. All findings of the gastric mucosa and measurements of the stomachs were presented descriptively. Groups were compared statistically, with significance level set at P < .05 for all evaluations.All gastric contents had pH >5.8, and mules had larger stomachs and higher weights compared with horses (P < .05). Macroscopic lesions were classified as hyperemic, punctate, and erosive. Histopathologically, lesions were consistent with a chronic inflammatory process.Our study provides evidence of macroscopic and histopathological lesions in the gastric mucosae of equid fetuses in the last trimester of gestation. Relevant information for perinatology and neonatology is provided regarding the prevalence and classification of preulcerous lesions in equids before birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After parturition, a rapid transition occurs from the intrauterine to the extrauterine milieu, exposing neonates to physiological circumstances characterized by oxidative conditions that instigate the generation of reactive oxygen species. These free radicals play pivotal roles in physiological processes; however, an imbalance between their production and the removal of antioxidants can result in severe cellular damage. The main objective of this study was to compare the oxidative and antioxidant profiles in mule and horse neonates immediately post-parturition, as well as at subsequent time points (1, 6, 12, and 24 h, 7 and 30 days) during their extrauterine existence. The parameters assessed included the systemic concentrations of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) and carbonyl groups; the activities of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx); and the levels of the total, indirect, and direct bilirubin. Our results showed no interaction effect between the neonatal groups and the assessed time points for the variables under investigation. Notably, the concentrations of TBARS, as a marker of lipid peroxidation, and bilirubin were consistently lower in the mules, whereas the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity exhibited higher levels in this group. The bilirubin levels were notably reduced in the mule neonates. The TBARS demonstrated a progressive decrease over the observation period in both groups, while the GPx activity remained relatively stable from birth to 7 days, with a substantial increase evident at the 30-day mark. Protein oxidation was not affected by the group and time, while for the SOD values, all times were statistically similar, except for the lower activity at T1h. Consequently, our findings lead us to the conclusion that neonatal mules and horses manifest distinct patterns of oxidative activity and antioxidant capacity during the initial month of their extrauterine existence, potentially indicative of different adaptation mechanisms to the extrauterine environment.

Equine rhinitis B virus is a lesser-known equine respiratory pathogen that is being detected with increasing frequency via a voluntary upper respiratory biosurveillance program in the United States. This program received 8684 nasal swab submissions during the years 2012-2023. The nasal swabs were submitted for qPCR testing for six common upper respiratory pathogens: Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4), equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV), and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV). The overall ERBV qPCR-positivity rate was 5.08% (441/8684). ERBV was detected as a single pathogen in 291 cases (65.99% of positives, 291/441) and was detected as a coinfection with at least one other respiratory pathogen in 150 cases (34.01%, 150/441). Young horses, less than a year of age, with acute onset of fever and respiratory signs and horses used for competition are more likely to test qPCR-positive for ERBV. Horses with ERBV may present with fever, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, and/or cough. Coinfection is a common feature of ERBV infection and S. equi, EHV-4 and EIV were the most common pathogens coinfected with ERBV. This report provides important information regarding the clinical relevance of ERBV in the horse and begins investigating the impact of coinfection on clinical disease.

Simple Summary: Laparoscopy is a minimally invasive surgical technique used to explore and treat conditions within the abdomen. In equids, this procedure is generally performed standing, with animals sedated and restrained in stocks. Laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids has gained popularity as it avoids the risk of general anaesthesia, greatly improves visualisation and manipulation of the ovary and its blood supply, reduces the recovery period, and provides a superior aesthetic result. Indications for ovariectomy include neutering, fertility problems, ovarian tumours, hematomas or cysts, disorders of sexual development, and the elimination of undesirable behaviour related to oestrus. During the procedure, pain management is achieved with a combination of systemic or loco-regional anaesthesia. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate studies in the equine veterinary literature, published between 2003 and 2023, in which loco-regional anaesthesia was used during standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids to assess the different drugs, techniques, and outcomes. Laparoscopic ovariectomy is generally performed with equids in the standing position, with the animals heavily sedated and restrained in stocks. This procedure may be quite painful, and it is essential first to manage intraoperative pain to complete the surgery, respecting the animal's welfare and, at the same time, ensuring the safety of the operators. Laparoscopy requires multiple small incisions to introduce the instruments, with one to two incisions enlarged sufficiently to remove the ovary. The surgical procedure must be associated with effective pain control, usually obtained with loco-regional anaesthesia, mesovarian injection, mesovaric or ovarian topical anaesthesia, and epidural anaesthesia. This systematic review aims to discuss articles published from 2003 to 2023 on treating loco-regional anaesthesia in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in association with an evaluation of pain. The literature review was undertaken according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines on three databases (NCBI-PubMed, Web of Science, and SciVerse Scopus). Despite the collected papers numbering 36, we identified only five eligible papers, demonstrating that few studies are performed in order to evaluate the quality of analgesia with loco-regional anaesthesia in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids. The authors of this systematic review agree that the association of injectable and epidural anaesthesia is the best solution to manage intraoperative pain in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatial ecology of feral horses (Equus ferus f. caballus) in Greece has never been studied before, including home range size and habitat selection. We tracked two mares fitted with global positioning system collars between September 2020 and August 2021 in a portion of Mount Menoikio in Central Macedonia, Northern Greece. We used K-select analysis to assess habitat selection for the study period by combining location data with several environmental variables. The mean home ranges for horses varied from 26.72 km2 (95% Minimum Convex Polygon; SE = 0.442) to 27.84 km2 (95% Kernel Density; SE = 1.83). Both horses selected areas with flat and smooth topography near natural grasslands with high green productivity. Conversely, they avoided areas near broadleaved forests and pastures, as well as at north-facing aspects. Overall, suitable habitats corresponded to a small portion (15.1%) of the available habitat. Our findings could assist land managers in mapping primary horses' habitat in the wider region and implement management regimes that will aid in preserving natural grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This retrospective study investigated the effect of preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis on postoperative complications in equids admitted to the Clinic for Equine Surgery, University of Zurich, for clean surgical procedures and diagnostic imaging. The medical records were searched for equids that were healthy and had a rectal temperature within the reference range preoperatively and were admitted between June 1, 2020 to December 1, 2020 for a surgical procedure performed under general anesthesia. The search yielded 46 equids, which were divided into two groups: Group 1 (no AB) did not receive prophylactic antibiotics and Group 2 (AB) received prophylactic antibiotics. The same surgical procedure was selected for comparative purposes, yielding 23 pair-matched equids. All equids underwent a thorough clinical examination and daily monitoring of the rectal temperature one day before to two days after the operation. In addition, hematological testing including the measurement of serum amyloid A (SAA), collection of nasal swab samples for microbiological analysis, ultrasono graphic examination of the lungs and jugular veins and endoscopy of the airways were carried out postoperatively. The differences between the groups were statistically analyzed. Eight of the 23 surgical procedures per group were primary castrations and 6 were arthroscopies. An inguinal approach was chosen for the primary castrations, whereby all layers were sutured again. The aim of this closed castration was to achieve primary healing, that’s why they are called primary castrations. Fever (rectal temperature > 38.5 °C) was one of the most common postoperative complications. The incidence of fever after general anesthesia was 21.7% (n = 5 of 23 equids) in the no AB group and 4.3% (n = 1 of 23 equids) in the AB group, but the difference was not significant (p = 0.09). The only horse in the AB group with a fever postoperatively developed a local wound infection. Fever in the five horses in the no AB group occurred within two days after the surgical procedure. The maximum temperature recorded was 40.6 °C. Of the five horses in the no AB group, three underwent primary-closure castration and two underwent an orthopedic procedure. All horses were successfully treated with postoperative systemic antibiotics. The most frequent cause of fever was attributable to respiratory tract infection. There were no significant differences between the two groups with regard to breed (p = 0.7), gender (p = 0.4) or age (p = 0.77). The surgeon (p = 0.72), the mean duration of anesthesia (p = 0.20) and the duration of surgery (p = 0.57) had no effect on postoperative complications. The number of cases per group (n = 23) was small, which may have contributed to a lack of a significant difference between the two groups (p = 0.09). Clinically, however, several horses in the no AB group had postoperative complications associated with the respiratory tract. One developed severe bacterial pleuropneumonia with abscessation and pleural effusion. The results of this study showed that administering antibiotics before a clean surgical procedure under general anesthesia is generally not necessary, but it may reduce postoperative complications such as the incidence of fever. Perioperative antibiotics should no longer be routinely administered because of widespread antibiotic resistance and instead should be reserved for cases in which the risk of postoperative complications is high. This entails thorough preoperative assessment of horses with attention to factors such as age and husbandry to prevent postoperative complications, particularly respiratory tract infections. In unclear cases, a blood test (leukocyte count, fibrinogen and SAA) is also required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, only a few studies have dealt with the radiological changes of the coffin bone in all equids in terms of roughness of the bone edges, bone resorption as well as remodeling processes and bone deformation. It seems to be an empiric finding that remodeling processes, the associated deformation and new bone formation on the coffin bone are a normal sign of ageing in donkeys. So far, there are no profound studies or publications on corresponding changes in donkeys and their dependence on the age of the animal. The objective of this study is to describe the normal radiographic anatomy of the donkey's coffin bone and to investigate the occurrence of pathological abnormalities, particularly in relation to the age of the animal. Furthermore, the study aims to prove that the changes mentioned above are not a normal sign of ageing in donkeys, but rather pathological conditions, for example as a result of chronic laminitis. Lateromedial radiographs of the distal toe of all limbs of 42 clinically healthy and lameness-free donkeys of European breeds were taken. The occurrence and severity of radiographic changes in the coffin bone were assessed using a scoring system. The tip as well as the extensory processus of the coffin bone were each assessed with regard to the presence of a sharply defined contour. The parietal and sole surfaces were also assessed for the presence of a smooth contour, slight irregularities through to moderate and severe changes and exostoses. The statistical evaluation was carried out with particular attention to the dependence of the changes on the age of the animal. A total of 160 limbs were examined. 28.1% of the coffin bones showed a sharply contoured coffin bone tip, whereas 71.9% showed deviations from the described norm in the sense of a blurred or rounded contour of the coffin bone tip, atrophic and lytic processes in the area of the coffin bone tip or the formation of a cap. The majority of these changes (69.5%) were minor deviations in the sense of a blurred or rounded contour of the coffin bone tip. In the present study, severe changes to the tip of the coffin bone, i.e. atrophy and cap formation, occurred more frequently on the forelimbs than on the hind limbs. The age as well as the weight of the donkeys had a significant influence on the occurrence of changes of the coffin bone tip (p<0.05). While age showed a negative correlation with the changes in the tip of the coffin bone, a positive correlation was found in relation to weight. 10.7% of the coffin bones showed a blurred contour in the area of the extensory processus. With regard to changes in extensory processus no significant correlation with age (p=0.3864) or limb (p=0.0962), but a positive correlation with the weight of the donkeys was found (p<0.05). The parietal surface was smooth in the majority of the cases (65%), 28.1% showed slight roughness of the parietal surface and only 6.9% showed moderate to severe changes, mainly on the front limbs. Age had no significant influence on changes in parietal surface (p=0.2958). However, weight was positively correlated with changes in parietal area and the forelimbs showed significantly more changes than the hindlimbs (p<0.05). In contrast to the parietal surface, the sole surface was sharply contoured in only 28.7% of all cases. The majority (62.5%) showed mild irregularities of the sole surface, moderate changes occurred in 8.8% of the cases and mainly on front limbs. The only parameter that influenced the occurrence of changes in the sole surface significantly was the weight of the specimens, whereas the age (p=0.1712) and the limb (p=0.1432) showed no significant correlation. Overall, almost all (41 of 42 subjects) donkeys showed changes in the coffin bone on at least one limb. The anatomical appearance of the coffin bone of the donkey is similar to that of the horse. Ideally, the tip of the coffin bone should be angular and sharply contoured, whereby a slightly rounded or somewhat unclear contour should not be regarded as pathological. The extensor process should be sharply contoured. The parietal surface should be as smooth as possible, whereas a slightly irregular contour of the sole surface can still be considered normal. In summary, it can be said that radiologically detectable changes in the coffin bone are common even in a clinically healthy donkey population and that, contrary to empirical claims, their occurrence and severity correlate less with the age of the animals and more with their weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing awareness of the "united airway disease" theory, more horses, not only sport horses but also pleasure horses, undergo detailed examinations of the respiratory tract. Using endoscopy, equine asthma (EA) is most commonly diagnosed in the lower airway, while pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia (PLH) is common in the upper airway. Grading EA as mild–moderate (MEA) and severe (SEA), this study aims to compare the co-occurrence and investigate the possible relationship between the clinical symptoms and endoscopic signs of MEA/SEA and PLH in pleasure horses. In this retrospective study, 80 out of 93 pleasure horses suspected of EA were enrolled and underwent a standardized protocol for a complete airway examination, including resting endoscopy with mucus accumulation assessment and cytology. The obtained results were scored and analyzed. In the studied pleasure horses, PLH co-occurred more frequently in horses with EA than without (p < 0.0001) and more in horses with SEA than with MEA (p = 0.025). However, when EA and PLH co-occurred, the severity of the clinical symptoms of EA did not increase (p > 0.05). In both EA and PLH, the amount of tracheal and nasopharyngeal mucus increased with the severity of the disease; however, it was positively correlated (ρ = 0.33; p = 0.02) only in SEA horses. In conclusion, it is likely that EA is often accompanied by PLH; however, PLH did not play a role in increasing the severity of EA's clinical symptoms. The role of the severity of accumulated mucus in the lower and upper airways when EA/PLH co-occur requires further research to confirm the morphological and functional unity of the respiratory tract, aligning with the concept of "united airways disease". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThe shift of the horse breeding sector from agricultural to leisure and sports purposes led to a decrease in local breeds’ population size due to the loss of their original breeding purposes. Most of the Italian breeds must adapt to modern market demands, and gait traits are suitable phenotypes to help this process. Inertial measurement unit (IMU) technology can be used to objectively assess them. This work aims to investigate on IMU recorded data (i) the influence of environmental factors and biometric measurements, (ii) their repeatability, (iii) the correlation with judge evaluations, and (iv) their predictive value.Material and methodsThe Equisense Motion S® was used to collect phenotypes on 135 horses, Bardigiano (101) and Murgese (34) and the data analysis was conducted using R (v.4.1.2). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to assess the effects of biometric measurements and environmental and animal factors on the traits.Results and discussionVariations in several traits depending on the breed were identified, highlighting different abilities among Bardigiano and Murgese horses. Repeatability of horse performance was assessed on a subset of horses, with regularity and elevation at walk being the traits with the highest repeatability (0.63 and 0.72). The positive correlation between judge evaluations and sensor data indicates judges’ ability to evaluate overall gait quality. Three different algorithms were employed to predict the judges score from the IMU measurements: Support Vector Machine (SVM), Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM), and K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN). A high variability was observed in the accuracy of the SVM model, ranging from 55 to 100% while the other two models showed higher consistency, with accuracy ranging from 74 to 100% for the GBM and from 64 to 88% for the KNN. Overall, the GBM model exhibits the highest accuracy and the lowest error. In conclusion, integrating IMU technology into horse performance evaluation offers valuable insights, with implications for breeding and training.

A voluntary upper respiratory biosurveillance program in the USA received 9740 nasal swab submissions during the years 2008-2021 from 333 veterinarians and veterinary clinics. The nasal swabs were submitted for qPCR testing for six common upper respiratory pathogens:equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), equine herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4), Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV), and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV). Additional testing was performed for equine gamma herpesvirus-2 (EHV-2) and equine gamma herpesvirus-5 (EHV-5) and the results are reported. Basic frequency statistics and multivariate logistic regression models were utilized to determine the associations between risk factors and EIV positivity. The EIV qPCR-positivity rate was 9.9%. Equids less than 9 years of age with a recent history of travel and seasonal occurrence in winter and spring were the most common population that were qPCR positive for EIV. This ongoing biosurveillance program emphasizes the need for molecular testing for pathogen identification, which is critical for decisions associated with therapeutics and biosecurity intervention for health management and vaccine evaluations and development.

Simple Summary: Diseases involving the subchondral bone are common in horses and are usually evaluated with conventional imaging techniques, such as radiography, conventional computer tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Characterization of the normal subchondral bone as well as exercise-related changes is of special interest in ongoing research. Single-source dual energy and detector-based spectral computed tomography are emerging technologies allowing the characterization of tissues that have different attenuation properties at different energies. Both technologies enable the calculation of effective atomic number, an index to determine tissue composition, and electron density, which is assumed to be associated with cellularity in tissues. In the present study, both values were determined in normal subchondral and trabecular bones in the distal limb of horses with single-source dual energy and detector-based spectral computed tomography. Several effective atomic number and electron density values differed between both technologies and within and between bones of the distal equine limb with both technologies. Effective atomic number values increased with age in the palmar/plantar fetlock joint zone. The reported effective atomic number and electron density values in the subchondral and trabecular bone of the equine distal limb may serve as preliminary reference values and aid future classification of diseases. Single-source dual energy (SSDECT) and detector-based spectral computed tomography (DBSCT) are emerging technologies allowing the interrogation of materials that have different attenuation properties at different energies. Both technologies enable the calculation of effective atomic number (EAN), an index to determine tissue composition, and electron density (ED), which is assumed to be associated with cellularity in tissues. In the present prospective observational study, EAN and ED values were determined for 16 zones in normal subchondral and trabecular bone of 37 equine cadaver limbs. Using both technologies, the following findings were obtained: 1. palmar/plantar EAN zone values in the fetlock increased significantly with increasing age of the horse; 2. all EAN and ED values were significantly lower in the trabecular bone than in the subchondral bone of all phalanges; 3. in the distal phalanx and navicular bone, most EAN and ED values were significantly lower compared to the proximal and middle phalanx; and 4. some EAN and ED values were significantly different between front and hind limbs. Several EAN and ED values significantly differed between SSDECT and DBSCT. The reported EAN and ED values in the subchondral and trabecular bone of the equine distal limb may serve as preliminary reference values and aid future evaluation and classification of diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been well-established that the number of vertebrae is associated with body size and meat productivity. In current study we utilized a digital radiography (DR) technology to detect the number of thoracolumbar vertebrae in live donkeys. For this purpose, we introduced for the first time a groundbreaking device designed by our team for assessing thoracolumbar vertebrae number traits in equids, employing a sample of 1,000 donkeys sourced from five distinct donkey farms. This assessment incorporates a range of crucial body metrics, including body height, length, and various other measurements. Subsequently, our study determined the number of thoracolumbar vertebrae in 112 donkeys, utilizing the DR system. These findings were further validated through post-mortem evaluations conducted by slaughtering the donkeys. Our findings demonstrated a remarkable resemblance between the thoracolumbar vertebrae numbers visualized through the DR system in live donkeys and those obtained via slaughter verification. In conclusion, this research underscores the accuracy and effectiveness of the DR system for the detection of thoracolumbar vertebrae in live donkeys, which might be helpful for assessing the body size and meat productivity. We also recommended the utilization of DR system for counting thoracolumbar vertebrae in other animals in live state and could be a useful addition to livestock business industry for the prediction of body size and meat productivity efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glanders, caused by Burkholderia mallei, is a zoonotic disease of equids. Serologic testing for glanders is required by disease-free countries before international movement of equids. The World Organisation for Animal Health Terrestrial Manual recommends the complement fixation test (CFT) for clearance of individual animals for movement, but the CFT is prone to false-positive results. A colorimetric western blot (WB) assay was developed and validated to resolve false-positive CFT results; however, that assay is relatively time-consuming, and the interpretation is subjective. We present here a procedurally similar chemiluminescent WB assay that performs comparably to the validated colorimetric WB assay and offers noticeable benefits of decreased time-to-result and greater ease of interpretation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In Brazil, the production of gaited mules has been a prominent activity in agribusiness. The selection of gaited saddle mules with a comfortable gait for covering long distances at low speeds involves crossing marching donkeys of the Pêga breeds with horses, preferably those belonging to the Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina breeds. The reference-C and non-reference-A alleles of the DMRT3:g.22999655C>A SNP are linked with different horse gaits, including the batida gait (diagonalized) and the picada gait (lateralized) in Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina horses, respectively. Since donkeys (Equus asinus) and mules (E. asinus ♂ x E. caballus ♀) also exhibit these gaits, this study aimed to determine whether the genotype affects the gait type in these animals. The higher frequency of CA mules and the rare presence of the A allele of DMRT3 in donkeys match previous findings in Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina horses, which are crucial in creating marching mules in Brazil. This suggests that the A allele likely came from the mares used in mating with donkeys. Furthermore, our findings suggest that factors beyond this gene variant, such as other genes and genetic variations, play a role in gait characteristics in equids. In Brazil, the production of mules with a comfortable gait primarily involves the breeding of marching saddle mules. This is achieved by crossing gaited Pêga donkeys with horses from the Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina breeds. The DMRT3:g.22999655C>A SNP is implicated in regulating gait phenotypes observed in various horse breeds, including the batida (CC) and picada (CA) gaits found in these horse breeds. We aimed to determine if genotypes influenced gait type in 159 mules and 203 donkeys genotyped for the DMRT3 SNP by PCR-RFLP analysis. About 47% of mules had the CC-genotype, while 53% had the CA-genotype. Donkeys predominantly had the CC-genotype (97%), and none had AA. Both CC- and CA-genotypes were evenly distributed among mules with the batida or picada gaits. In donkeys, the CC-genotype frequencies were consistent regardless of gait type. However, the CA-genotype was more common in picada-gaited donkeys than in batida-gaited donkeys. The prevalence of CA mules and the rare presence of the non-reference allele in donkeys align with previous findings in Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina horses. This suggests that the non-reference allele likely originated from the mares involved in donkey crosses. Our results also imply that factors beyond this variant, such as other genes and polymorphisms, influence gait traits in equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actively shedding healthy horses have been indicated as a possible source of respiratory pathogen outbreak, transmission, and spread. Using nasal swabs from clinically healthy sport horses submitted for qPCR testing after an outbreak of equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) myeloencephalopathy (EHM) in the spring of 2022, this study aimed to identify the rate of clinically healthy horses shedding common and less characterized respiratory pathogens within the sport horse population to better understand their role in outbreaks. Swabs were collected during a required quarantine and testing period, according to the United States Equestrian Federation (USEF), and showed return-to-competition requirements. Common respiratory pathogens, such as equine influenza virus (EIV), EHV-4, and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV), were found at low but stable frequencies within previously reported ranges, whereas EHV-1 and Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi) were found at or above previously reported frequencies. Less characterized respiratory pathogens, such as EHV-2, EHV-5, and S. equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus), were found within previously reported ranges. Common respiratory pathogens, especially EHV-1 following the multiple EHM outbreaks, were found to be circulating in clinically healthy sport horse populations, reflecting their silent transmission. The strategy of quarantine and EHV-1 qPCR testing of clinically healthy horses was successful at eliminating additional EHM outbreaks and facilitating safe return to competition with no reported respiratory disease outbreaks following the subsequent shows in California.

It is necessary to study hormonal patterns from mules to recognize alterations and neonatal maladaptation. Our objective was to evaluate concentrations of hormones in mule (n = 6) and equine foals (n = 6). Blood was collected at T0, 1, 6 and 12 h after birth. Hormone concentrations were evaluated using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Effects of time, group and interactions and regression analysis were evaluated (p < 0.05). There was a cubic and quadratic decline in mule and equine foals, respectively, for 3β,20α-dihydroxy-DHP. Mule foals were born with lower circulating 3β,20α-dihydroxy-DHP concentrations, which might be related to progestogen concentrations in mares with a hybrid placenta. Corticosterone and cortisol concentrations remained unchanged for the first hour post-foaling then declined in mule and equine foals (p < 0.0001). Dehydroepiandrosterone was the main androgen present. There was a decrease in dihydrotestosterone at 12 h (p = 0.002). Differences in the temporal patterns of secretion within each steroid class, pregnanes, corticoids, and androgens, suggest they were derived from different tissue sources, presumptively the placenta, adrenals and gonads of the fetus/neonate, respectively. Mule and horse foals were born without evidence of testosterone secretion. For the first time, steroid hormone levels were measured in neonatal mules, and this will provide insight into neonatal physiology that differs from equine and allow us to gain an understanding of mules that have rarely been studied. Further studies are needed to elucidate the effects of hybrid pregnancies in the steroid endocrinology of neonates.

A voluntary biosurveillance program was established in 2008 in order to determine the shedding frequency and prevalence factors for common respiratory pathogens associated with acute onset of fever and/or respiratory signs in equids from the USA. Over a period of 13 years, a total of 10,296 equids were enrolled in the program and nasal secretions were analyzed for the qPCR detection of equine influenza virus (EIV), equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1), EHV-4, equine rhinitis A and B virus (ERVs), and Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi). Single infections with respiratory pathogens were detected in 21.1% of the submissions with EIV (6.8%) and EHV-4 (6.6%) as the two most prevalent viruses, followed by S. equi (4.7%), ERVs (2.3%), and EHV-1 (0.7%). Multiple pathogens were detected in 274 horses (2.7%) and no respiratory pathogens in 7836 horses (76.2%). Specific prevalence factors were determined for each of the six respiratory pathogen groups; most differences were associated with age, breed, and use of the horses, while the clinical signs were fairly consistent between viral and bacterial respiratory infections. Monitoring the frequency of detection of common respiratory pathogens is important in order to gain a better understanding of their epidemiology and to implement management practices aimed at controlling disease spread.

Laparoscopic ovariectomy is generally performed with equids in the standing position, with the animals heavily sedated and restrained in stocks. This procedure may be quite painful, and it is essential first to manage intraoperative pain to complete the surgery, respecting the animal’s welfare and, at the same time, ensuring the safety of the operators. Laparoscopy requires multiple small incisions to introduce the instruments, with one to two incisions enlarged sufficiently to remove the ovary. The surgical procedure must be associated with effective pain control, usually obtained with loco-regional anaesthesia, mesovarian injection, mesovaric or ovarian topical anaesthesia, and epidural anaesthesia. This systematic review aims to discuss articles published from 2003 to 2023 on treating loco-regional anaesthesia in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in association with an evaluation of pain. The literature review was undertaken according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines on three databases (NCBI-PubMed, Web of Science, and SciVerse Scopus). Despite the collected papers numbering 36, we identified only five eligible papers, demonstrating that few studies are performed in order to evaluate the quality of analgesia with loco-regional anaesthesia in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids. The authors of this systematic review agree that the association of injectable and epidural anaesthesia is the best solution to manage intraoperative pain in standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in equids.

The spatial ecology of feral horses (Equus ferus f. caballus) in Greece has never been studied before, including home range size and habitat selection. We tracked two mares fitted with global positioning system collars between September 2020 and August 2021 in a portion of Mount Menoikio in Central Macedonia, Northern Greece. We used K-select analysis to assess habitat selection for the study period by combining location data with several environmental variables. The mean home ranges for horses varied from 26.72 km2 (95% Minimum Convex Polygon; SE = 0.442) to 27.84 km2 (95% Kernel Density; SE = 1.83). Both horses selected areas with flat and smooth topography near natural grasslands with high green productivity. Conversely, they avoided areas near broadleaved forests and pastures, as well as at north-facing aspects. Overall, suitable habitats corresponded to a small portion (15.1%) of the available habitat. Our findings could assist land managers in mapping primary horses’ habitat in the wider region and implement management regimes that will aid in preserving natural grasslands.

With the increasing awareness of the “united airway disease” theory, more horses, not only sport horses but also pleasure horses, undergo detailed examinations of the respiratory tract. Using endoscopy, equine asthma (EA) is most commonly diagnosed in the lower airway, while pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia (PLH) is common in the upper airway. Grading EA as mild–moderate (MEA) and severe (SEA), this study aims to compare the co-occurrence and investigate the possible relationship between the clinical symptoms and endoscopic signs of MEA/SEA and PLH in pleasure horses. In this retrospective study, 80 out of 93 pleasure horses suspected of EA were enrolled and underwent a standardized protocol for a complete airway examination, including resting endoscopy with mucus accumulation assessment and cytology. The obtained results were scored and analyzed. In the studied pleasure horses, PLH co-occurred more frequently in horses with EA than without (p < 0.0001) and more in horses with SEA than with MEA (p = 0.025). However, when EA and PLH co-occurred, the severity of the clinical symptoms of EA did not increase (p > 0.05). In both EA and PLH, the amount of tracheal and nasopharyngeal mucus increased with the severity of the disease; however, it was positively correlated (ρ = 0.33; p = 0.02) only in SEA horses. In conclusion, it is likely that EA is often accompanied by PLH; however, PLH did not play a role in increasing the severity of EA’s clinical symptoms. The role of the severity of accumulated mucus in the lower and upper airways when EA/PLH co-occur requires further research to confirm the morphological and functional unity of the respiratory tract, aligning with the concept of “united airways disease”.

ABSTRACT: Male reproductive tract disorders (MRTDs) are common in equids and may represent a significant proportion of the caseload of equine practitioners. Herein, we determined the frequency, clinico-pathological findings, and therapeutics of MRTDs in equids from a 9-year survey of the clinical records of a Veterinary Teaching Hospital in Midwestern Brazil. During this period, 87 affected equids presented 100 MRTDs distributed in 17 different diagnoses. Forty-three (49.4%) equids presented MRTDs affecting the glans penis or preputial skin fold. Testicles, scrotum, and spermatic cords disorders were diagnosed in 32 (36.8%) horses. Of the remaining 12 (13.8%) horses, six presented two different MRTDs on two distinct anatomical areas, and five animals exhibited the same disease, affecting two different anatomical locations. Only one horse presented three distinct MRTDs on two anatomical regions. Habronemiasis was the most frequent MRTD detected in 26% of the diagnoses, followed by miscellaneous wounds (14%), cryptorchidism (13%), inguinal hernia (13%), funiculitis (9%), paraphimosis (6%), squamous cell carcinoma (5%), urethrolithiasis (3%), preputial abscesses, and orchitis (2% each). Phimosis, ulcerative posthitis, epididymitis, hydrocele, papillomatosis, teratoma, and testicular torsion accounted for 1% each. Sixty-three (72.5%) equids received hospital discharge, 18 (20.6%) were humanely euthanized, and six (6.9%) died. This study detected the most relevant MRTDs that affected over 7.5% in a survey of 1,154 equids referred for hospital care. Our finding highlights that MRTDs may be debilitating and life-threatening conditions, and they can potentially impact the reproduction of equids in the region. This knowledge may support equine practitioners in elaborating proper sanitary and management protocols to prevent and reduce the incidence of most MRTDs recorded, improving equid production and welfare.

In the last decades, western Countries increased their interest in innovative products like donkey milk and other activities carried out with donkeys (onotherapy, onotourism). Donkey milk is considered a high-added-value food and is very similar to human breast milk. It is also used as an ingredient in cosmetics. The growing public interest suggests the need for a pilot study on the sustainability of donkey milk production, according to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) criteria. Milk was used as the Declared Functional Unit (DFU) and two different models were described, a Real Scenario Model (RSM, i.e. a farm with its declared milk yield), and an Increased Milk Production Model (IMPM, i.e., the same farm with theoretically increased milk yield). Allocation was applied both in RSM and IMPM; thus, different values of impact categories, i.e., Global Warming Potential (GWP, kg CO2 equivalents), Acidification Potential (ACP, g SO2 equivalents) and Eutrophication Potential (EUP, g PO43−) were observed. GWP improved after mass allocation and showed the lowest equivalents in IMPM, compared to economic and reference allocation criterion (P

Strangles is a highly contagious upper respiratory infection of equids that is globally distributed. The causative agent of strangles, Streptococcus equi subspecies equi, can be spread through indirect contact with infected fomites, and studies have shown this microbe to live well in varying environmental conditions. The purpose of this study was to analyze strangles case numbers across the United States of America from 2018 to 2022 to investigate potential temporal or weather patterns associated with outbreaks. Diagnosed case records were obtained from the Equine Disease Communication Center, university databases, government agencies, or veterinary diagnostic labs, and geographic information systems (GISs) were used to map cases and to acquire relevant meteorological data from outbreak areas. These data were analyzed using logistic regression to explore trends that occur between outbreaks and changes in temperature and precipitation. Initial review of weather data suggested monthly changes in strangles case numbers corresponded with changing seasons. Logistic regression indicated that changes in monthly average temperature and minimum temperature were significantly associated with increased or decreased odds of strangles outbreaks, respectively. Future analyses should focus on weather data isolated within a smaller region or state to better resolve trends in strangles outbreaks throughout the continental USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We performed this review to determine the weighted prevalence of equids parasitic infections in Ethiopia. Article searches on parasites of equids were conducted using PubMed, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of Sciences, Scopus, AJOLs and Research Gate. A random effects model was used to estimate the weighted prevalence and to study heterogeneity. The primary searches generated, 3082 potential studies, of which 66 reports met the inclusion criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. There were 32 reports involving two or more equids species, eighteen on donkeys, and sixteen on horses. Moreover, fifty of the reports mentioned helminth infections in equids, thirteen on protozoans, and three on ectoparasites. The estimated weighted prevalence of parasitic infections in equids was 58.3% (95% CI 50.8–65.4%, I2 = 99%). Helminths were the most prevalent parasites in equids, accounting for 77.1% (95% CI 71.4%, 82%, I2 = 98.5%), followed by ectoparasites at 35.4% (95% CI 33.4–37.52%, I2 = 88.2%) and haemoparasites (protozoans) at 10.84% (95% CI 6.6%, 17.3%, I2 = 98.1%). Furthermore, with a prevalence of 82.3% (95% CI 75.9–87.3%, I2 = 97.4%), donkeys were the most affected equids with helminth parasites. From the reports, we found forty-three species of helminth parasites affecting equids, including thirty-four nematode species (Strongylus, Cyathostomum, Coronocyclus, Cylicocyclus, Cylicostephanus, Trichostrongylus, Oesophagodontus, Strongyloides, Triodontophorus, Gyalocephalus, Poteriostomum, Dictyocaulus, Oxyuris, Habronema, Draschia, Parascaris, Setaria, and Probstmayria species), three trematodes (two Fasciola and one Gastrodiscus species), three cestodes (two Anoplocephala and one Anoplocephaloides species) and three botfly larvae (one Rhinoestrus and two Gasterophilus species). Trypanosoma species (T. congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei, T. equiperdum, and T. evansi), piroplasms (Theileria equi and Babesia caballi), and Eimeria species have also been reported to affect equids. Ticks (Amblyomma variegatum, A. gemma, Rhipicephalus decoloratus, R. evertisi evertisi, R. pulchellus, R. muhsame, R. sanguineus, Hyalomma rufipes, and Hy. truncatum) and lice (Bovicola equi and Haematopinus asini) were the ectoparasites recorded to affect equids. The risk of publication bias across studies was likely to be high due to differences in publication year and diagnostic techniques. In conclusion, parasitic infections of equids are common in Ethiopia and are caused by a variety of parasite species, putting the performance and well-being of these packing animals at risk. Therefore, more research is needed to identify infection risk factors and raise awareness of the consequences of parasitism in order to provide strategies to mitigate the problems in equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single-source dual energy (SSDECT) and detector-based spectral computed tomography (DBSCT) are emerging technologies allowing the interrogation of materials that have different attenuation properties at different energies. Both technologies enable the calculation of effective atomic number (EAN), an index to determine tissue composition, and electron density (ED), which is assumed to be associated with cellularity in tissues. In the present prospective observational study, EAN and ED values were determined for 16 zones in normal subchondral and trabecular bone of 37 equine cadaver limbs. Using both technologies, the following findings were obtained: 1. palmar/plantar EAN zone values in the fetlock increased significantly with increasing age of the horse; 2. all EAN and ED values were significantly lower in the trabecular bone than in the subchondral bone of all phalanges; 3. in the distal phalanx and navicular bone, most EAN and ED values were significantly lower compared to the proximal and middle phalanx; and 4. some EAN and ED values were significantly different between front and hind limbs. Several EAN and ED values significantly differed between SSDECT and DBSCT. The reported EAN and ED values in the subchondral and trabecular bone of the equine distal limb may serve as preliminary reference values and aid future evaluation and classification of diseases.

Höwenegg is an early Vallesian (MN9, 10.3 Ma) vertebrate locality in Hegau, Southwest Germany renowned for its preservation of complete mammalian skeletons, diverse invertebrate and plant fossils. We provide the first to be published photographic images of the Höwenegg Hippotherium primigenium skulls, mandibles and dentitions for describing critical character states used to define hipparion species. We compare these states to those for North American Cormohipparion occidentale, Turkish Cormohipparion sinapensis Algerian 'Cormohipparion' africanum, Austrian Pannonian C Hippotherium sp., Austrian locality Inzersdorf Hippotherium primigenium, the China type specimens of Hippotherium weihoense and 'Hipparion' chiai, and Moldovan Cremohipparion moldavicum. Also provided are univariate statistical comparisons of cranial-dental characters and Log10 ratio analyses of third metapodials dimensions to better evaluate taxonomic comparisons and define the genetic pool from which Old World hipparions are derived. We concur with previous authors that North American Cormohipparion is the likely source of first occurring Old World hipparions offering alternatives of Cormohipparion occidentale or Cormohipparion quinni as the most closely related species for the Old World Cormohipparion Datum. We find that the best evidence for the chronology of the Cormohipparion Datum suggests and age of 11.4–11.0 Ma, or 11.2–11.1 Ma rather than the 11.5 Ma datum recently alleged for China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research concerning leptospirosis in donkeys and mules has been neglected around the world. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiological situation of the prevalence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies in donkeys and mules from the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Blood serum samples were collected from 180 animals (109 donkeys and 71 mules) in two rural properties from the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, and then submitted to a microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Urea and creatinine values were also quantified. Epidemiological variables such as age, breeding system, contact with other animal species, source of water and food, vaccination against leptospirosis, presence of reproductive alterations, and rodent control were also investigated. From 180 samples collected, 39 (21.67%) showed positive results in the MAT, at a dilution ≥ 1:100. Some animals were reactive for more than one serovar. The serovar Tarassovi was the most frequent (14.07%), followed by Hardjo (11.85%) and Wolffi (11.11%). There was a statistically significant difference between animals from 0 to 3 years of age reactive in the MAT in comparison to the other age groups. Most of the animals had urea and creatinine concentrations within the acceptable reference limit; however, there was a significant increase in creatinine levels in some of the test animals. The studied properties showed differences in some epidemiological aspects such as vaccination of the animals, presence of reproductive problems in the herd, and rodent control. Such aspects pointed as risk factors that may influence the frequency of positive serological results in property 1. The present study demonstrated that the prevalence of leptospirosis in donkeys and mules is high and several serovars are being maintained by these animals, representing a potential public health risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Asthma is one of the leading problems affecting the lower airways in equids. At the same time, palatal disorders, including primary palatal instability and dorsal displacement of the soft palate, are common problems affecting the equine upper airways. In human medicine, "one airway, one disease" is a widely accepted concept describing the anatomical, physiological, and immunological connections between upper and lower airways. Clinical studies have already highlighted co-occurrences and associations between lower airway diseases, such as asthma, and upper airway diseases, such as rhinitis, rhinosinusitis, vocal cord dysfunction, or obstructing sleep apnea in people. However, only a few studies have explored co-occurrences and associations between asthma and palatal disorder in horses. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of palatal disorders in horses affected by severe asthma in exacerbation and to assess whether a decrease can be observed after treatment-induced disease remission. The presence of palatal disorders was investigated by overground endoscopy in forty-six horses diagnosed with severe equine asthma before and after asthma treatment. Palatal disorders were diagnosed less frequently in remission after asthma treatment than during exacerbation before treatment, suggesting that both asthma and palatal disorders may respond to similar treatment plans. According to the "unified or united airway disease" theory, diseases in the upper and lower airways frequently co-occur because they represent a single morphological and functional unit. Palatal disorders (PDs) and severe equine asthma (SEA) are frequent diseases that, respectively, affect upper and lower equine airways; however, clinical studies focusing on the co-occurrence of PDs and SEA are limited. The present study investigated the prevalence of PDs in horses affected by SEA, and whether prevalence decreased after SEA treatment. Forty-six privately owned horses affected by SEA in exacerbation were included. For each horse, the severity of the asthma clinical signs was assessed using a previously described scoring system, and the co-occurrence of palatal disorders was investigated using overground endoscopy, before and after treatment for SEA. Before treatment (in exacerbation), 67.4% of SEA-affected horses showed evidence of PDs, including 39.1% showing evidence of palatal instability (PI) and 28.3% of dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP). Airway inflammation (neutrophil percentage in the tracheal wash and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid) was worse in horses with co-occurring PDs. After treatment (in remission), no horses showed evidence of PI, while DDSP was diagnosed in 8.7% of horses. These findings suggest that palatal disorders respond to asthma treatment, supporting the hypothesis that both diseases could be manifestation of a common underlying disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant Cape zebra (Equus capensis) is one of the extinct Quaternary large mammal species of southern Africa, and the largest equid from the Quaternary of Africa. Twenty-six Pleistocene equid tracksites have been identified in aeolianites on the Cape south coast of South Africa. An age range of 161 ± 12 ka to 43 ± 4 ka has been established through Optically Stimulated Luminescence. More than half of the sites contain large-equid tracks, representing the first ichnosites attributed to E. capensis. Smaller equid tracks may have been registered by the quagga (E. quagga quagga). The abundance of E. capensis tracksites on the Cape south coast contrasts with the paucity of body fossils of the species from the region, contrasting with the impression obtained from the body fossil record that E. capensis was predominantly a west coast species in the region. The new data illustrate the capacity of the body fossil and trace fossil records to complement each other. The loss of suitable habitat provided by the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain was probably a contributing factor in the extinction of this large-bodied grazer. A long trackway at Driefontein, attributed to E. capensis, adds to a sparse global record of fossil horse trackways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Respiratory disease is the most common presenting complaint at veterinary clinics and a priority concern for equid owners and veterinary practitioners in Ethiopia. Objectives This study aimed to report the molecular detection of EHV‐2 and EHV‐5 and to assess the risk factors associated with infection in working equids in central Ethiopia. Methods Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from 58 horses and donkeys to detect EHV‐2 and EHV‐5 using PCR targeting the conserved region of glycoprotein B (gB) genes. Results From 58 equids, EHV‐5 and EHV‐2 were detected in 20 (34.5%) and 19 (32.8%) equids, respectively. Concurrent infection with EHV‐2 and EHV‐5 was found in 6 (10.3%) equids who exhibited respiratory clinical signs. EHV‐2 was detected in a significantly higher (p = 0.002) proportion of horses (54.5%; n = 18) than donkeys (4%; n = 1). In contrast, EHV‐5 was detected in a significantly higher (p = 0.004) proportion of donkeys (56%; n = 14) compared to horses (18.2% n = 6). EHV‐2‐positive equids were seven times more likely to display clinical signs of respiratory disease than EHV‐2‐negative equids (Odds ratio (OR) = 6.9; 95%CI: 1.72‐27.60). However, statistically significant (p = 0.832) difference was not observed for EHV‐5. EHV‐2 was detected in a significantly higher (p = 0.004) proportion of female (50%; n = 16) compared to male equids (11.5%; n = 3). Conclusions This study revealed the molecular detection of EHV‐2 and EHV‐5 in horses and donkeys residing in central Ethiopia. The association between EHV‐2‐test‐positive equids and displaying of clinical signs of respiratory disease was observed, which suggests EHV‐2 involvement in the development of respiratory disease; however, it deserves further investigation.

The domestic donkey (Equus asinus asinus) is a hardy, versatile working animal. This species still plays an important role in the traditional economy of the peoples of Central Asia and adjacent regions. At the same time, very little is known about the ways in which this domestic species appeared in the region and the nature of its use in the early historical epochs. The morphological features of ancient donkeys are also poorly studied. It is assumed that donkeys appear in the Middle East in the 4th millennium BC. Zooarchaeological data shows that the ancient population of Turkmenistan did not breed the donkey until the Late Bronze Age. Equid bones found at Chalcolithic, Early and Middle Bronze Age sites belong to the onager (Equus hemionus). Donkey bones first appeared in the materials from the excavations of the sites of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Culture (BMAC). One of the most famous site of BMAC is Gonur Depe, the administrative and ceremonial center of ancient Margiana. It is located in the ancient delta of the Murghab River. Gonur Depe dates from 2500 till 1500 BC. The protourban center includes two main sites — North and South Gonur. During the excavation at Gonur, 142 individual bones and 9 complete skeletons of the domestic donkey were found. Perhaps the isolated donkey bones fell into the trash layers during the destruction of the ritual objects. No traces of purposeful slaughter of these animals and consumption of their meat were found. The donkey skeletons were found inside the human burials or in associated structures, although there are independent burials of these animals as well. So, for example, at the area 8, the donkey, surrounded by ceramic vessels was placed in a tomb made of adobe bricks. In the burials 3200 and 3900, the skeletons of donkeys were found alongside the skeletons of double-humped camels and remains of four-wheeled wagons. In total, 4 burials with carts were found at Gonur, where the skeletons of camels are always present, whereas only in two of them — the skeletons of donkeys. It is possible that the bulls and camels were main draft animals of the Gonur people, while the donkeys mainly played the role of a pack and riding animals. The height at the withers of the Gonur donkeys, reconstructed on the basis of measurements of the complete skeletons, was 115–120 cms. These were animals of average size for their species.

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the obligate intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is a worldwide parasitic zoonosis. A cross‐sectional study was carried out to determine the exposure to T. gondii in equids in Europe. Serum samples from 1399 equids (1085 horses, 238 donkeys, and 76 mules/hinnies) bred in four European countries (Italy, Spain, United Kingdom [UK], and Ireland) were collected during the period of 2013–2021. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii was 18.9% (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 16.9–21.0) by using the modified agglutination test (MAT) at a cut‐off of 1:25. Seropositivity by country was 27.1% in Italy, 16.6% in Spain, 12.0% in UK and 7.0% in Ireland. Anti‐T. gondii antibodies were detected in 12.8% of the horses, 43.7% of the donkeys, and in 28.9% of the mules/hinnies. A Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) analysis was carried out to study the associations between seropositivity and explanatory variables related to individuals, herds, and management measures on these herds, selected based on the bivariate analysis. The risk for being seropositive for T. gondii was 5.3 and 2.7 times higher in donkeys and mules/hinnies than in horses, respectively. In addition, significantly higher seropositivity was observed in horses from herds that used disinfectants less than once a week (13.9%; p = 0.038, odds ratio [OR] = 1.6; 95% CI: 1.03–2.62) compared with those from herds that performed weekly disinfection of the facilities (9.4%). This is the first large‐scale seroepidemiological study on T. gondii comprising horses, donkeys, and mules/hinnies in Europe and the first report of T. gondii exposure in horses from Ireland and UK. We found a widespread distribution of T. gondii among equid populations in different European countries. The seroprevalence found in these species, especially in donkeys and mules/hinnies, highlights the potential risk of human infection through the consumption of their raw/undercooked milk or meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When modern (Western) viewers look at ancient art, the first feature of the image that is often assessed is its relationship to 'reality'. How 'real' the image looks is inextricably linked to its evaluation and therefore the viewer's estimation of its quality. The more 'realistic' an image is deemed, the more it is appreciated for its historic and aesthetic value. This fixation on reality has often affected the assessment of ancient imagery. It can create a bias that limits the researcher's ability to analyse and interpret the image(s) to their full potential. When studying ancient images, the viewer should always keep in mind its original purpose. Rather than looking for reality through the notion of resemblance, the degree of reality should instead be assessed through the way the subject is being conveyed as the image's purpose dictates its appearance. This article will use depictions of the horse in ancient Egyptian and Greek art to highlight some of the challenges one encounters when studying ancient images' relationship with reality. It will show why it is important for scholars to focus on the image/object's purpose, their resemblance to their subject, and their meaning in terms of the message(s) they are meant to convey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horses and other equid species are frequently affected by bovine papillomavirus type 1 and/or 2 (BPV1, BPV2)-induced skin tumors termed sarcoids. Although sarcoids do not metastasize, they constitute a serious health problem due to their BPV1/2-mediated resistance to treatment and propensity to recrudesce in a more severe, multiple form following accidental or iatrogenic trauma. This review provides an overview on BPV1/2 infection and associated immune escape in the equid host and presents early and recent immunotherapeutic approaches in sarcoid management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In equine stables and their surroundings, a large number of insects are present that can be a nuisance to their equine hosts. Previous studies about dipterans transmitting infectious agents to Equidae have largely focused on Nematocera. For the preparation of this systematic review, the existing literature (until February 2022) was systematically screened for various infectious agents transmitted to Equidae via insects of the suborder Brachycera, including Tabanidae, Muscidae, Glossinidae and Hippoboscidae, acting as pests or potential vectors. The PRISMA statement 2020 (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines for systematic reviews were followed. The two concepts, Brachycera and Equidae, were combined for the search that was carried out in three languages (English, German and French) using four different search engines. In total, 38 articles investigating Brachycera as vectors for viral, bacterial and parasitic infections or as pests of equids were identified. Only 7 of the 14 investigated pathogens in the 38 reports extracted from the literature were shown to be transmitted by Brachycera. This review clearly shows that further studies are needed to investigate the role of Brachycera as vectors for pathogens relevant to equine health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Brazil, the production of mules with a comfortable gait primarily involves the breeding of marching saddle mules. This is achieved by crossing gaited Pêga donkeys with horses from the Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina breeds. The DMRT3:g.22999655C>A SNP is implicated in regulating gait phenotypes observed in various horse breeds, including the batida (CC) and picada (CA) gaits found in these horse breeds. We aimed to determine if genotypes influenced gait type in 159 mules and 203 donkeys genotyped for the DMRT3 SNP by PCR-RFLP analysis. About 47% of mules had the CC-genotype, while 53% had the CA-genotype. Donkeys predominantly had the CC-genotype (97%), and none had AA. Both CC- and CA-genotypes were evenly distributed among mules with the batida or picada gaits. In donkeys, the CC-genotype frequencies were consistent regardless of gait type. However, the CA-genotype was more common in picada-gaited donkeys than in batida-gaited donkeys. The prevalence of CA mules and the rare presence of the non-reference allele in donkeys align with previous findings in Mangalarga Marchador and Campolina horses. This suggests that the non-reference allele likely originated from the mares involved in donkey crosses. Our results also imply that factors beyond this variant, such as other genes and polymorphisms, influence gait traits in equids.

After parturition, a rapid transition occurs from the intrauterine to the extrauterine milieu, exposing neonates to physiological circumstances characterized by oxidative conditions that instigate the generation of reactive oxygen species. These free radicals play pivotal roles in physiological processes; however, an imbalance between their production and the removal of antioxidants can result in severe cellular damage. The main objective of this study was to compare the oxidative and antioxidant profiles in mule and horse neonates immediately post-parturition, as well as at subsequent time points (1, 6, 12, and 24 h, 7 and 30 days) during their extrauterine existence. The parameters assessed included the systemic concentrations of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS) and carbonyl groups; the activities of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx); and the levels of the total, indirect, and direct bilirubin. Our results showed no interaction effect between the neonatal groups and the assessed time points for the variables under investigation. Notably, the concentrations of TBARS, as a marker of lipid peroxidation, and bilirubin were consistently lower in the mules, whereas the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity exhibited higher levels in this group. The bilirubin levels were notably reduced in the mule neonates. The TBARS demonstrated a progressive decrease over the observation period in both groups, while the GPx activity remained relatively stable from birth to 7 days, with a substantial increase evident at the 30-day mark. Protein oxidation was not affected by the group and time, while for the SOD values, all times were statistically similar, except for the lower activity at T1h. Consequently, our findings lead us to the conclusion that neonatal mules and horses manifest distinct patterns of oxidative activity and antioxidant capacity during the initial month of their extrauterine existence, potentially indicative of different adaptation mechanisms to the extrauterine environment.

Entrapped, stranded and recumbent equids often require emergency rescue. The success of the rescue is often affected by secondary injuries from struggling of the horse to rise and from injury secondary to attempted rescue by pulling on the head or limbs of the equid. Therefore, having ready access to simplified rescue equipment which can be easily applied would be desirable. The devices currently available for these manipulations are not always readily available at the site of an incident. Here, we describe and illustrate the step-by-step use of a Loops System consisting of 183 cm round slings, which can be positioned on the recumbent horse utilizing commercially available and reasonably priced equipment. The Loops System is basically composed of four round slings placed in such a way that utilizes the skeletal system for support. The procedures are illustrated utilizing a recumbent life-size horse model or mannequin. We suggest that the Loops System kit may allow enhanced ability for responders to provide care to a recumbent horse.

Comprehensive reports of the caseload of donkeys and mules in veterinary hospitals in the United States are lacking. We compiled the information of the caseload of donkeys and mules at the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of California, Davis for a ten-year period, from 2008 to 2017. The overall equid caseload was 94,147, of which 996 (1.06%) were donkeys and mules. Most of the neonates seen were mules. Most miniature donkeys were between 2 and 10 years of age, and standard donkeys and mules were 10 to 20 years old. The body condition scores were predominantly high, especially in donkeys. Most miniature and standard donkeys resided in sanctuary and rescue farms and their use was not stated. Most mules were used for riding, packing or driving. Medical complaints represented 62% of the total visits and wellness visits represented 38% of total visits. The donkeys and mules in the case population described here received a good standard of veterinary care with regular vaccinations, deworming, routine dental care, and treatment of ailments. Our study is the first report of the life expectancy, use, body condition, preventative health and veterinary medical care of a population of donkeys and mules in the western United States.

Glanders is an anthropozoonosis caused by the bacteria Burkholderia mallei, affecting mainly equids. It has been eradicated in North America, Australia, and Western Europe, but continues to occur sporadically in countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and South America. Its notification is mandatory by the World Organization for Animal Health. After 30 years, the disease reappeared in Brazil in 1999 and, thereafter, 1,413 outbreaks have been reported. However, the epidemiological situation of the disease in the country is not adequately known. Thus, 2718 animals from 654 properties in the state of Pará were randomly selected by sampling and examined using a serial protocol with Complement Fixation and Western Blot serological tests. The prevalence of properties infected with glanders in the state was estimated at 1.68% [0.84; 3.33] and of seropositive animals at 0.50% [0.27; 0.94]. The introduction of animals was individualized as a risk factor for disease introduction in the properties (OR = 5.9 [1.4; 25.5]). Despite the low prevalence of infected properties and seropositive animals, the state must review actions to fight the disease, considering that the strategies implemented have not affected the endemic balance of the disease. This process must involve all public and private agents interested in the topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been recognized that the so-called 'Oriental horseshoe' encountered by Western travellers and military personnel in the Middle East, including Iran, differed from the standard European, rim-like horseshoe in consisting of a thin plate of metal secured to the base of the horse's hoof. This study examines the literary and historical evidence for the Oriental horseshoe considering a range of Late Antique and mediaeval Islamic, as well as later sources. The efficacy of the Oriental horseshoe and its iconographic representation are examined. Examples in Western collections and the experiences of 19111 and early 20111 century military officers are described, attesting to the important differences between the European and Oriental-style of horseshoe. This important piece of material culture, which is almost never discussed in treatments of equine husbandry or military history in the Near East. deserves consideration by anyone interested in the management and deployment of cavalry in ancient and premodern Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conidiobolomycosis has a wide distribution, predominantly in humid tropical regions, affecting several species with significant mortality rates. The genus Conidiobolus is now divided into four genera: Capillidium, Conidiobolus, Microconidiobolus, and Neoconidiobolus. There are no confirmed reports of infection by these fungi in Equidae in Brazil. We present a rhinofacial rhinitis caused by Neoconidiobolus lamprauges in a mule from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The mule presented bilateral semi-occlusion of the nostrils, difficulty breathing, and weight loss. The histological examination of the nostril biopsied mass revealed multifocal necrotizing areas with nonstained images of fungal hyphae in the Splendore-Hoeppli reaction and surrounded by macrophages, eosinophils, neutrophils, and multinucleated giant cells. The Grocott methenamine silver staining revealed thin-walled, rarely septated, irregular branching hyphae, with a varying diameter of 12 μm (± 3.63 μm), and terminal ballooning dilations. The determining etiology of this rhinitis was based on the hyphae staining by immunohistochemistry and by amplifying the DNA fragment of N. lamprauges by polymerase chain reaction. Conidiobolomycosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of the causes of rhinitis in equids, mainly in tropical regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Male infanticide has been reported in a wide range of taxa as a strategy for redirecting maternal investment and increasing a male's chance of siring future offspring. Plains zebras (Equus quagga) possess many of the social organization and life history traits found to favour infanticide. However, most documented cases are from captive animals, while it has not been detected in studies of free-ranging populations. Here, we report an apparent infanticide attempt in which the historical associations of all participants were known. In addition, we report the first instance of non-kin female–female cooperative defence against male aggression in this species. We discuss why this behaviour may not have been observed by other longitudinal studies. We then explore how intraspecific and inter-individual variation may factor into its relative rarity, how the reproductive biology of plains zebras relates to this behaviour, and how female–female cooperation between non-kin can operate as an effective counterstrategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From a previous large epidemiological survey, we randomly selected 474 serum samples (463 horses and 11 mules) distributed among four municipalities of Pará state, Amazon region, Brazil, and from three types: farm animal, urban carthorse, and sport horse. Samples were tested by indirect fluorescence antibody test (IFAT ≥ 64) for antibodies reactive to spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae using Rickettsia rickettsii as crude antigens. From the 474 equids tested, 149 (31.4%) had ticks attached during sampling, belonging mostly to the species Dermacentor nitens. The overall seroprevalence for SFG rickettsiae was 31.4% (95% confidence interval: 27.3–35.9%) with 149 seropositive animals out of 474 screened. Notably, 77 equids (16.2%) had high endpoint titers ranging from 512 to 16,384, indicating that they had been exposed to SFG rickettsiae not long before sampling. Animal type affected rickettsial seroprevalence, with significantly higher values among farm horses when compared with urban and sport animals. Presence of dogs and tick infestation were negatively associated with equid seropositivity to R. rickettsii. This is the first report of SFG rickettsiae-reactive antibodies in equids from Pará state, Brazilian Amazon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Glanders is a transmissible zoonotic disease caused by Burkholderia mallei that infects equids and humans. No glanders cases in equids were reported so far in Nepal. Case presentation Following suspected glanders in animals with clinical signs in different regions in Nepal, serum samples were tested by CFT, ELISA and Luminex® tests. Two horses and a mule tested positive for glanders by all tests, while two other equids only tested positive by ELISA and Luminex®. Analysis of swabs and pus samples by a PCR system targeting B. mallei confirmed the presence of the bacterium in the samples collected from the 3 equids that yielded positive results in all serological tests. Genotyping of the three PCR positive samples with a SNP-based method identified a genotype closely related to the B. mallei strains circulating in India. Conclusion Confirmation of glanders cases underscores the need of implementing a surveillance program in Nepal and a strict control of the animal movement across the borders.