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BACKGROUND: Comprehensive descriptions of equids with granulocytic anaplasmosis (EGA) with neurologic or muscle disease and other atypical presentations are scarce in the literature. OBJECTIVE: Describe the clinical signs, laboratory findings, treatment, and outcome of equids with EGA with emphasis on neurologic and muscle disease. ANIMALS: Thirty-eight horses, 1 donkey. METHODS: Retrospective study. Equids with EGA were included. The electronic data base was searched from January 2000 to December 2022 using the words anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, granulocytic, and rickettsia. Signalment and clinical data were reviewed. Data were evaluated for normality using Shapiro-Wilk test. Parametric and nonparametric statistics were used for normally and non-normally distributed data. RESULTS: Common (41%) and other (59%) presentations were seen in horses ≥ 4 years of age (median, 14 years) with an overrepresentation of males (77%). Neurologic disease was common (41%), mainly presenting as diffuse symmetrical proprioceptive ataxia. Brain disease was less common manifesting as obtundation and cranial nerve deficits. Muscle disease was less common, with QH breeds with the variant causing myosin heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) having severe disease. Cavitary effusion, cardiomyopathy and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) were uncommon. Clinical laboratory results varied depending on disease stage. Muscle enzyme activities were significantly higher in horses with muscle disease. Outcome was favorable with prompt tetracycline treatment. Death and long-term sequelae were not reported. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Common and atypical presentations of EGA have a favorable outcome with prompt tetracycline treatment. Quarter horse breeds with muscle disease should be genotyped for MYHM.

Simple Summary: Beginning with Darwin, scientists have long considered the reasons for why some species but not others were domesticated. For example, of the equid species, horses and asses, but not the zebra, were domesticated. Many reasons for the 'domesticability' of mammalian species have been proposed (e.g., diet, social organization, response to humans). However, none of these traits have been subjected to empirical investigation. Here, we review past proposals for several domesticability traits and use a novel quantitative and evolutionary analysis to evaluate the explanatory power of these traits for domestication. For hoofed mammals, a heightened physiological response to humans, modeled as vulnerability to capture myopathy, emerged as the only significant obstacle to domestication. This is consistent with the reconstructed evolution of capture myopathy in ungulates, especially equids, and the prehistory of predation on equids, which shows that ancestral horses lost the vulnerability to capture myopathy consequent to a reduction in predation pressure on horses. Zebras, however, retained the vulnerability to capture myopathy as an adaptation to persistent high predation pressure, which would have impeded their domestication. Our results point to the importance of considering an animal's behavior and biology as either an impediment or facilitator of domestication or developing a human-animal symbiotic relationship. Since Darwin, many evolutionary and behavioral researchers have considered the role of phenotypic traits that favor the domestication of nonhuman animals. Among such proposed traits are a species' social structure, level of intra- and interspecific agonistic interactions, sociosexual behaviors, parental strategies, reaction to humans, habitat preference, dietary habits, developmental trajectories, and utility to humans. However, little to no comparative phylogenetic evidence exists concerning the importance of these attributes for the domestication of animals. Moreover, rather than considering domestication as a dichotomous event (non-domesticated vs. domesticated), humans and their potential domesticates encountered numerous socioecological challenges/obstacles during the domestication process before reaching the stage of full domestication. The present study explored the influence of adult body mass, gregariousness, dietary breadth, and reaction to humans on the domestication process of ungulates. The phylogenetic comparative model revealed that capture myopathy (CM), as a proxy for reaction to humans, negatively and significantly influenced the domestication process. The present paper also explored the evolution of CM in equine species in response to the presence of large carnivoran predators during the Pleistocene. Ecologies that preserved most of the large carnivoran predators of equine species also featured more equine taxa with CM (e.g., zebras), which were thus less suitable for domestication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arteriviruses can establish persistent infections in animals such as equids, pigs, nonhuman primates, rodents, and possums. Some Arteriviruses can even cause overt and severe diseases such as Equine Arteritis in horses and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome in pigs, leading to huge economic losses. Arteriviruses have evolved viral proteins to antagonize the host cell's innate immune responses by inhibiting type I interferon (IFN) signaling, assisting viral evasion and persistent infection. So far, the role of the Arterivirus glycoprotein 5 (GP5) protein in IFN signaling inhibition remains unclear. Here, we investigated the inhibitory activity of 47 Arterivirus GP5 proteins derived from various hosts. We demonstrated that all GP5 proteins showed conserved activity for antagonizing TIR-domain-containing adapter proteins inducing interferon-β (TRIF)-mediated IFN-β signaling through TRIF degradation. In addition, Arterivirus GP5 proteins showed a conserved inhibitory activity against IFN-β signaling, induced by either pig or human TRIF. Furthermore, certain Arterivirus GP5 proteins could inhibit the induction of IFN-stimulated genes. These findings highlight the role of Arterivirus GP5 proteins in supporting persistent infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals adjust their habitat use patterns in response to changes in their physiological needs and environmental conditions. Understanding the mechanisms underlying resource selection and space use across time and space reveals effects of the environment on animals' decisions. We explored the effects of habitat availability and heterogeneity on the seasonal and annual space use and resource selection of two free‐roaming feral burro (Equus asinus) populations in the United States within distinct climate and habitat conditions: the Sonoran Desert and the Colorado Plateau. As an introduced yet protected species in the United States, understanding burros' interactions with habitat elements is important for their conservation and management, as well as the conservation of sympatric wildlife. We used GPS locations of female burros (72 animals across both study areas) to delineate annual and seasonal ranges and resource selection patterns. We evaluated effects of mean and CV of habitat covariates, including forage, distance to water, and topography, representing availability and heterogeneity of resources, on seasonal and annual range size of burros. Moreover, we explored how burro seasonal and annual resource selection patterns were affected by availability and heterogeneity of resources. In the Sonoran Desert study area, burros had smaller seasonal and annual ranges and constant resource selection patterns across a year, likely due to a freshwater lake in the area, making water a nonlimiting resource. Human presence was the greatest factor affecting range size and resource selection in the Sonoran Desert, where burros selected for areas near roads and human recreation. In the Colorado Plateau study area, where resources were more seasonal, we found larger range sizes and fluctuating resource selection patterns compared to the Sonoran Desert population. Spatial variation in forage, water, and topography significantly affected range size of burros inhabiting the Colorado Plateau study area. Productive habitats with available water support smaller ranges and a more consistent pattern of resource selection. Our results highlight the positive effect of habitat heterogeneity and the negative effect of habitat productivity on range size of animals. Our findings contribute to an improved understanding of habitat requirements for free‐roaming burros that currently live under various climate and habitat conditions globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equids may be infected by zoonotic Leishmania spp., including Leishmania infantum, in regions where canine leishmaniasis (CanL) is endemic, and Leishmania martiniquensis, which has been reported in horses from Central Europe. This study was designed to evaluate the occurrence of both Leishmania spp. among equids living in CanL endemic areas of Italy, as well as to identify dipteran vectors from the same habitats. From March to October 2023, blood, serum and tissue samples from skin lesions were collected from equids (n = 98; n = 56 donkeys and n = 42 horses) living in Italy, as well as sand flies and biting midges. Blood samples (n = 98) and skin lesions (n = 56) were tested for Leishmania spp. by conventional and real time PCRs and sera were tested by immunofluorescence antibody tests (IFAT) for both L. infantum and L. martiniquensis. Insects were morphologically identified, and female specimens (n = 268 sand flies, n = 7 biting midges) analyzed for Leishmania DNA, as well as engorged sand flies (n = 16) for blood-meal detection. Two animals with skin lesions (i.e., one donkey and one horse) scored positive for Leishmania spp. DNA, and 19 animals (i.e., 19.4%; n = 13 donkeys and n = 6 horses) were seropositive for L. infantum, with five of them also for L. martiniquensis. Most seropositive animals had no dermatological lesions (i.e., 68.4%) while both animals molecularly positive for Leishmania spp. scored seronegative. Of the 356 sand flies collected, 12 females (i.e., n = 8 Sergentomyia minuta; n = 3 Phlebotomus perniciosus, n = 1 Phlebotomus perfiliewi) were positive for Leishmania spp. DNA, and one out of seven biting midges collected was DNA-positive for L. infantum. Moreover, engorged sand flies scored positive for human and equine DNA. Data suggest that equids living in CanL endemic areas are exposed to Leishmania spp., but their role in the circulation of the parasite needs further investigations. Author summary: Horses and donkeys seem to be infected by Leishmania infantum, causative agent of canine leishmaniasis (CanL), which is one of the most important zoonotic vector-borne disease. Moreover, Leishmania martiniquensis, causing visceral and mucocutaneus leishmaniasis in humans, was reported in horses from central Europe. Therefore, we designed this study to investigate the circulation of both Leishmania zoonotic species among equids living in CanL endemic areas and to access the presence of dipteran vectors from the same habitats. Horses and donkeys (n = 98) were sampled and analyzed for Leishmania spp., as well as sand flies and biting midges. Nineteen equids (19.4%) scored seropositive by immunofluorescence antibody test for L. infantum and one donkey and one horse, presenting skin lesions, scored molecularly positive for Leishmania spp. Twelve sand flies and one biting midge were positive for Leishmania spp. DNA. Overall, data herein presented suggest that equids living in CanL endemic areas are exposed to Leishmania spp., potentially contributing to the circulation of the parasite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The authors analyzed horse remains from a chariot-horse pit (CMK2) associated with elite burials at the Bronze Age site of Yaoheyuan in northwestern China. Among the horses interred in this specific pit, one adult female and one infant show evidence of post-mortem fetal extrusion. This conclusion is based on an examination of their age at death, sex, head orientation, and spatial relationships. The parturition stage of the foal suggests that the interment of the female horse likely occurred in late spring or early summer. The relatively high temperature may have generated gas in the body of the pregnant mare, eventually leading to the extrusion of the fetus. This represents the first reported case of post-mortem fetal extrusion in equids from archaeological contexts. Post-mortem fetal extrusion, also known as "coffin birth", refers to the phenomenon where a fetus is pushed out of a deceased female due to pressure from decomposing gas in the abdominal cavity. While post-mortem fetal extrusion has been documented in humans at several archaeological sites, there are few reports of it occurring in non-human animals. In this study, we present a case of post-mortem fetal extrusion in equids observed in a chariot-horse pit (CMK2) at the Western Zhou period site of Yaoheyuan in northwestern China, dating to the early first millennium BC. This specific pit, one of four excavated at the site, contained at least 29 horses and 3 wooden chariots. Most of these horses were young adults aged between 4 and 12 years. Out of the 22 horses with sex estimates, 21 were males. Among these individuals, one adult female horse (Horse 6) and one infantile horse (Horse 10) were of particular importance. Based on the age-at-death, sex, and head orientation of the two individuals, alongside their spatial relationships, it is highly likely that Horse 6 was the fetus of Horse 10 and was extruded in the pit. According to the parturition stage of Horse 10, Horse 6 was likely interred in CMK2 in late spring or early summer of the year, during which the relatively high temperature may have generated gas that led to the extrusion of the fetus. Although the specific reason for the inclusion of a pregnant mare in a chariot-horse pit at Yaoheyuan remains a topic for future research, this case marks the first report of post-mortem fetal extrusion in archaeological horses. The findings offer insights into the timing of horse interment as part of ritual practices among the settled elites during the Bronze Age in China and provide valuable reference data for contemporary equine veterinary science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Equids, such as horses, donkeys, and mules, play vital roles in various types of work globally, with their use differing significantly across countries of different income levels. We conducted a thorough review of research literature to examine if and how terms related to working equids are used in high-, middle-, and low-income countries. Our findings indicate that studies focusing on higher-income countries tend to produce more research papers on equids, except for when using the terms "working equid" and "draft equid", which are more common in studies focusing on lower-income countries, and these terms often refer to animals in low-resource rural settings and marginalised communities. We suggest that "working equid" should be defined as "any equid engaged in physical labour that provides a significant or direct contribution to the economic livelihood, sustenance or support of the owner/user's family, typically within a low resource setting". The lack of a standard definition complicates policy making and welfare legislation, especially in lower-income countries where equids are crucial for livelihoods but are often overlooked by policy. This study highlights the need for more inclusive and culturally aware terminology to improve welfare standards and policies for working equids worldwide. Equids are engaged in myriad types of work across the world, with contexts and industries varying widely between high-, middle- and low-income countries as classified by the World Bank. Through a comprehensive abstract search and literature review, we examined the usage and context of terms associated with working equids in high-income countries (HICs), upper-middle-income countries (UMICs), lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), and low-income countries (LICs). Analysis showed that the search term used was significantly associated with World Bank country income classification. All search terms except two returned a significantly higher number of papers for higher-income countries compared to lower-income countries. The two exceptions were "working equid" and "draft equid", which returned significantly more papers for lower-income countries than higher-income countries. Both terms also returned papers from high-income and upper-middle-income countries, but these were always in the context of low-resource settings and rural or marginalised communities, of which we provide examples in the discussion. We propose that the term "working equid" should be used to describe "any equid engaged in physical labour that provides a significant or direct contribution to the economic livelihood, sustenance or support of the owner/user's family, typically within a low resource setting". Our review highlights the intricate interplay between socioeconomic factors and examines how equids are described in the literature. The lack of a universally accepted definition leads to challenges in policy formulation, resource allocation, and welfare standards development, particularly in LMICs and LICs where working equids are crucial to livelihoods. This study underscores the need for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to terminology, advocating for future research to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps in understanding working equids globally. Such efforts are vital for equitable and effective welfare standards and policy development for these animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rolling is a natural behavior of equids that is beneficial to their well-being. However, more intensive domestic environments offer fewer opportunities for animals to roll, neglecting its importance. We believe that the inclusion of recreational areas for animals, containing substrates and conditions that encourage the occurrence of natural behaviors, is essential to promote their well-being. Therefore, we evaluated the preference of horses (Equus caballus; n = 8) and mules (E. asinus x E. caballus; n = 8) for different rolling substrates (sand, grass, manure), and the influence of this behavior on thermoregulation after exercise. Horses rolled preferentially on grass, whereas mules preferred sand, both of which were cooler substrates when compared to manure. In addition, the temperature of the animals significantly reduced after rolling. Thus, horses and mules must roll for thermoregulation after exercise, choosing cooler and more efficient substrates for heat dissipation. The differences in preferences between mules and horses showed particularities between the equine species and its hybrid, which is important for management that is focused more on the individual animal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Piroplasmosis is a common and prevalent tick‐borne disease that affects equids. Objectives: To determine the infection and molecular characteristics of the piroplasms in donkeys from Xinjiang, northwestern China, we undertook a cross sectional study by collecting representative samples across several counties within the region. Methods: A total of 344 blood samples were collected from adult domestic donkeys from 13 counties in Xinjiang. PCR was conducted to test for T. equi and B. caballi in the blood samples based on the equine merozoite antigen‐1 (Ema‐1) gene and the 48 kDa rhoptry protein (BC48) gene, respectively. Results: Sixteen blood samples tested positive for piroplasms and the overall infection rate was 4.7% (16/344). Seven of the 13 counties were positive for piroplasms. Among the 16 piroplasm‐positive samples, 15 were singly infected with T. equi with an infection rate of 4.4% (15/344), and coinfection with T. equi and B. caballi was detected in one sample (0.3%, 1/344) from Wushi. Four T. equi sequence genotypes were identified and grouped into different branches of the evolutionary trees. Conclusion: These findings suggest that the infection rate of piroplasms is low in domestic donkeys in southern Xinjiang and that T. equi genotypes have a regional distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the increasing awareness of the "united airway disease" theory, more horses, not only sport horses but also pleasure horses, undergo detailed examinations of the respiratory tract. Using endoscopy, equine asthma (EA) is most commonly diagnosed in the lower airway, while pharyngeal lymphoid hyperplasia (PLH) is common in the upper airway. Grading EA as mild–moderate (MEA) and severe (SEA), this study aims to compare the co-occurrence and investigate the possible relationship between the clinical symptoms and endoscopic signs of MEA/SEA and PLH in pleasure horses. In this retrospective study, 80 out of 93 pleasure horses suspected of EA were enrolled and underwent a standardized protocol for a complete airway examination, including resting endoscopy with mucus accumulation assessment and cytology. The obtained results were scored and analyzed. In the studied pleasure horses, PLH co-occurred more frequently in horses with EA than without (p < 0.0001) and more in horses with SEA than with MEA (p = 0.025). However, when EA and PLH co-occurred, the severity of the clinical symptoms of EA did not increase (p > 0.05). In both EA and PLH, the amount of tracheal and nasopharyngeal mucus increased with the severity of the disease; however, it was positively correlated (ρ = 0.33; p = 0.02) only in SEA horses. In conclusion, it is likely that EA is often accompanied by PLH; however, PLH did not play a role in increasing the severity of EA's clinical symptoms. The role of the severity of accumulated mucus in the lower and upper airways when EA/PLH co-occur requires further research to confirm the morphological and functional unity of the respiratory tract, aligning with the concept of "united airways disease". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Domestic species, including equids, were introduced in the Galapagos Islands in the XIX century. Equine vector-borne diseases are circulating in South America but their occurrence in the Galapagos Island was unknown. The objective of this study was to detect the occurrence of West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV) and equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) in the four Galapagos Islands raising equids if they were present at a prevalence >1%. Serum samples were collected from 411 equids belonging to 124 owners from April to July 2019. All the results were negative to the ELISA tests used suggesting that WNV, USUV and EIAV are not circulating in the equine population of the Galapagos Islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite several millions of working equids worldwide, there are few published studies regarding the epidemiology of their health and welfare. Data collected by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operating in the working equid sphere therefore have important epidemiological value and could be used towards animal health surveillance. The aim of this study was to identify common clinical findings and mortality patterns of working equids in low- and middle-income countries and investigate their epidemiology using data collected from an international NGO. A retrospective analysis was conducted to determine the proportion of clinical findings and mortality risk by equid species, year and region. Negative binomial regression models were generated to investigate differences in mortality risk and proportion of key clinical findings between equid species, hemispheres and calendar month. A total of 4,313,606 presentations were reported from 14 countries between January 2005 and March 2021 (mean 22,121; SD ± 7,858 per month). Wounds and abscesses were the most reported clinical finding for all equid species (mean proportion 35%; SD ±0.19 of all findings). A higher proportion of wounds (mean proportion 41.7%; SD±0.2) was recorded in donkeys than mules or horses (P<0.001). Mules had higher reported mortality risk (1.2%; 95% CI 0.94–1.46%) than horses (0.4%; 95% CI 0.36–0.55%; p<0.001) or donkeys (0.2%; 95% CI 0.14–0.22%). Work-related wounds were the predominant finding in working equids, particularly so in donkeys. Prevention strategies should focus on improvements to work equipment and practices for all equids. Future investigations required include refinement of diagnostic approaches for donkeys and investigation of risk factors to understand the higher mortality in mules. Routine monitoring of clinical findings reported by national or international NGOs could be included in animal health surveillance strategies, although standardisation of data for this purpose is needed so that changes in prevalence following implementation of prevention strategies can be monitored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Routine tasks performed by equids have been taken over by motorised transportation and agricultural mechanisation services, and both are rapidly expanding in developing nations. For instance, in developing nations, the length of all‐season roads annually has increased by 0.2% and the number of vehicles by 15% to 17%. Consequently, rural agriculture no longer regularly recruits equines. Objectives: Strategies need to be developed to safeguard the use values of equids to guarantee their crucial role in the daily lives of rural people. Study design: The report has compiled the findings of field‐based exploratory qualitative study. Methods: This study involved in‐depth interviews of 10 knowledgeable informants and analysed FAOSTAT historical dataset to assess the population status of equids. Results: To encourage people to use equids for companionship and recreational purposes, the hobbies of equine farming need to be promoted in both urban and rural areas. Equestrian riding and racing can be beneficial for festivals and sociocultural events, like weddings, funerals and competitions. It is illogical to disregard the transportation, ploughing and crop harvesting roles of equids. It is worthwhile to include donkeys and mules in the well‐established sports of horseracing and riding. Bovines can produce high‐quality carcasses when equids are used as work animals. Equine manure is rich in nutrients compared with ruminant manure. Equid meat is occasionally consumed and exported. Equid hides can be used to produce leather goods and parchments. It is essential to investigate the medicinal value of equine products. By clipping hair from horses' tails and manes, handicraft people can make whiskers and cords of musical instruments. Equids are highly sought‐after in landscape management and scientific studies. In rangelands, horses can assist in monitoring grazing and browsing livestock. In open urban public spaces and rural areas, equines can graze on communal grazing lands as stray animals and a population of feral animals may eventually emerge. Main limitations: This is an exploratory qualitative study and it needs to be supported by extensive studies involving formal surveys. Conclusion: To ensure the continued existence of equids, it is worthwhile to explore the derived use values, enhance the existing ones and alleviate their major production constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anatolia has played a crucial role as a crossroads for the evolution of terrestrial mammals throughout the paleogeographic history of the Eurasian and African faunas. The fossil record of equids is significant in tracing intercontinental dispersal patterns by contributing to the evaluation of evolutionary processes and biochronological correlations. Systematic studies on fossil Equidae taxons contribute to elucidating the connections between their functional anatomies, age distributions, the paleoenvironments of faunas, and regional climate changes. The Hipparion taxon, known as the three-toed horses of the Late Miocene, was first observed in the early Vallesian in Anatolia and exhibited significant diversity, especially during the Turolian. In this context, studying Anatolian faunas is notable for understanding Eurasian Hipparion evolution and for Equidae systematic paleontolog y studies. Hippotherium brachypus is known as the large hipparionine species of the Turolian and was first reported from Pikermi. This paper discusses the presence of the Hippotherium brachypus and the paleoenvironments of regions based on the systematics of maxillary specimens as well as isolated series collected from the Late Miocene mammal localities of Muğla-Yatağan-Şerefköy (MN12), Uşak-Eşme-Kemiklitepe (MN11-12), and Kütahya-Bayat (MN11-12). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine influenza (EI) virus is one of the most economically significant pathogens causing respiratory disorders in equids. The recent outbreaks of EI in equids in North Western Nigeria showed EI virus is circulating in the Northern part of the country. This study determined the seroprevalence of EI infection in horses from the Southwestern states of Nigeria. One hundred sera samples from horses kept in three South Western states: Lagos, Ogun, and Oyo were screened for antibodies against influenza A nucleoprotein antigen using the direct ELISA method. Positive sera samples were thereafter examined thereafter further examined for haemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibodies to the H3 subtype of the influenza A virus. Antibodies were detected in 60 of the horses (22 Lagos, 8 Ogun and 30 Oyo). Although significantly higher seropositivity was observed in the male horses, seroprevalence of EI was also higher among 11- 15 years, exotic breeds and patrol horses. High seropositivity of horses in the South Western states of Nigeria to EIV infection is an indication that adequate monitoring of horse movement and continuous surveillance of the virus and vaccination should be strongly recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In brief: In some instances, extra-species breeding in equids is more successful than intraspecies breeding; however, little is known about the immunomodulatory effect of donkey semen and seminal plasma on the mare’s endometrium. This study compared the mare uterine inflammatory response during extra- and intraspecies breeding. Abstract: Anecdotal experience suggests horse mares have less post-breeding inflammation and better fertility when bred with donkeys. This study aimed to compare the post-breeding inflammatory response of mares exposed to donkey and horse semen and seminal plasma and evaluate the proteome and metabolome of donkey and horse sperm and seminal plasma. Uterine edema, intrauterine fluid accumulation, polymorphonuclear neutrophils on cytology, and concentrations of progesterone, and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL1A, IL1B, IL4, IL6, CXCL8, IL10) were assessed pre- and post infusion of semen and seminal plasma (donkey and horse). The metabolome and proteome were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Mare cycles bred with horse semen had a greater progesterone concentration than those bred with donkey semen at 8 days post ovulation (P = 0.046). At 6 h post infusion, the inflammatory response due to the donkey semen tended to be lower (P = 0.074). Donkey seminal plasma had anti-inflammatory properties compared to horse semen and seminal plasma, as determined by fewer neutrophils on uterine cytology (P < 0.05). Horse semen resulted in greater concentrations of IL6 and lesser concentrations of IL1B (P < 0.05). PGE1, PGE3, and lactoferrin concentrations were significantly more abundant in donkey sperm and seminal plasma. Prostaglandins play an important role in immunomodulation and might contribute to the response triggered in interspecies breeding. In conclusion, breeding horse mares with donkey semen induces similar post-breeding endometritis as observed with horse semen. Donkey seminal plasma results in a lower post-infusion inflammatory response compared to other combinations in the immediate post-breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Bacterial contamination of implants has been linked to biofilm formation and subsequent infection, capsular contracture, and breast implant–associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Reducing contamination during implant insertion should therefore reduce biofilm formation disease sequelae. Objectives The aim of this study was to compare levels of contamination between preventative techniques. Methods A model to simulate the passage of implants through a skin incision was designed that utilized a sterile textured polyvinyl plastic sheet contaminated with Staphylococcus epidermidis. In the first stage of the polyvinyl contamination model, implants were subject to infection-mitigation techniques and passed through the incision, then placed onto horse blood agar plates and incubated for 24 hours. In the second stage of the study the same contamination was applied to human abdominal wall specimens. A 5 cm incision was made through skin and fat, then implants were passed through and levels of contamination were measured as described. Results Smooth implants grew a mean of 95 colony-forming units (CFUs; approximately 1 CFU/cm2) and textured implants grew 86 CFUs (also approximately 1 CFU/cm2). CFU counts were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U -test which showed no significant difference between implant types (P <.05); independent-sample t -tests showed a significant difference. The dependent-variable techniques were then compared as groups by one-way analysis of variance, which also showed a significant reduction compared with the control group (P <.01). Conclusions This in vitro study has shown the effectiveness of antiseptic rinse and skin/implant barrier techniques for reducing bacterial contamination of breast implants at the time of insertion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The Assyrian Trade Colonies Age, from the EBA to MBA, marked a shift in the trading system between Anatolia and Mesopotamia due to increased mineral trade. Assyrian traders transported tin, textiles, and valuable stones and metals, paying taxes to local rulers. They established settlements and established Karum colonies in major cities and Wabartum stations in smaller ones. It is known that donkeys and mules were used as caravan animals towards the end of the Early Bronze Age in Central Anatolia. However, we have not identified enough archaeological material to prove the existence of mules in particular. Animal bone remains recovered from the Derekutuğun mining settlement were examined, and especially the teeth of equids were further examined by the researcher. This study mentions the existence of the oldest known possible mules, especially based on the dental remains of equids found in Derekutuğun. This paper discusses the discoveries of early donkey and the earliest mule remains in Central Anatolia from the site Derekutuğun. This site represents the remains of a village dating back to the Early Bronze Age and Assyrian Trade Colonies period, associated with mining. The archaeofaunal assemblage was studied by the author and his team using classical archaeozoological methods. The dental remains of the Equidae found at Derekutuğun have been re-examined and are described in this article. The dental evidence indicates that donkeys, and possibly the earliest mules ever found in Central Anatolia, were kept at this site. Although the paper is based on the archaeozoological remains, written sources from the period also support the faunal identification. Derekutuğun was a small settlement that specialized in processing copper ore, and which was an important hub for a trade network because of its extensive mining and extraction operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

West Nile virus (WNV) is capable of causing severe neurologic disease in both humans and equines, making it a disease of importance in both human medicine and veterinary medicine. No targeted treatments exist for WNV infection in either humans or equines. Infection is treated symptomatically through management of symptoms like fever and seizures. As treatment for WNV is purely supportive, the response to WNV has focused primarily on methods of disease prevention. To this end, research efforts have yielded several effective vaccines for equine use as well as numerous conventional mosquito control techniques. Even with the implementation of these techniques, disease caused by WNV remains a concern since no human vaccine exists. Due to the lack of a human vaccine, novel preventative strategies are under active research and development. Of these strategies, some of the most conceptually promising are techniques using genetically modified mosquitoes, addressing the disease at the vector level with minimal ecological side effects. Taken together, the use of combined, synergistic methods, such as physical barriers, transgenic mosquitoes, and immunological targets, will be the best way to prevent WNV disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study aimed to analyze the seroprevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) among equids in Bulgaria; confirm the results of two tests, ELISA and the virus neutralization test (VNT); and investigate some predisposing factors for WNV seropositivity. A total of 378 serum samples from 15 provinces in northern and southern Bulgaria were tested. Fifteen samples were positive in both assays, i.e., the seroprevalence was 3.97%. When compared with VNT, ELISA showed 100.0% sensitivity and 94.5% specificity. The analysis of risk factors showed that the region, altitude of the locality, type of housing and breed were associated with WNV seropositivity. The results from this study demonstrate that WNV circulates among equids in Bulgaria and that they could be used to determine the respective risk levels in provinces or regions of the country. The aim of this study was to analyze the seroprevalence of West Nile virus (WNV) among equids in Bulgaria, confirm the results of a competitive ELISA versus the virus neutralization test (VNT) and investigate some predisposing factors for WNV seropositivity. A total of 378 serum samples from 15 provinces in northern and southern Bulgaria were tested. The samples originated from 314 horses and 64 donkeys, 135 males and 243 females, aged from 1 to 30 years. IgG and IgM antibodies against WNV protein E were detected by ELISA. ELISA-positive samples were additionally tested via VNT for WNV and Usutu virus. Thirty-five samples were WNV-positive by ELISA (9.26% [CI = 6.45–12.88]), of which 15 were confirmed by VNT; hence, the seroprevalence was 3.97% (CI = 2.22–6.55). No virus-neutralizing antibodies to Usutu virus were detected among the 35 WNV-ELISA-positive equids in Bulgaria. When compared with VNT, ELISA showed 100.0% sensitivity and 94.5% specificity. A statistical analysis showed that the risk factors associated with WNV seropositivity were the region (p < 0.0001), altitude of the locality (p < 0.0001), type of housing (p < 0.0001) and breed (p = 0.0365). The results of the study demonstrate, albeit indirectly, that WNV circulates among equids in northern and southern Bulgaria, indicating that they could be suitable sentinel animals for predicting human cases and determining the risk in these areas or regions of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine hepacivirus (EqHV, Flaviviridae, hepacivirus) is a small, enveloped RNA virus generally causing sub-clinical hepatitis with occasional fatalities. EqHV is reported in equids worldwide, but for Italy data are limited. To address this, a survey study was set up to estimate prevalence at a national level and among different production categories (equestrian; competition; work and meat; reproduction) and national macro-regions (North, Central, South, and Islands). Data obtained testing 1801 horse serum samples by Real-Time RT PCR were compared within the categories and regions. The NS3 fragment of the PCR-positive samples was sequenced by Sanger protocol for phylogenetic and mutational analysis. The tertiary structure of the NS3 protein was also assessed. The estimated national prevalence was 4.27% [1.97–6.59, 95% CI] and no statistical differences were detected among production categories and macro-regions. The phylogenesis confirmed the distribution in Italy of the three known EqHV subtypes, also suggesting a possible fourth sub-type that, however, requires further confirmation. Mutational profiles that could also affect the NS3 binding affinity to the viral RNA were detected. The present paper demonstrates that EqHV should be included in diagnostic protocols when investigating causes of hepatitis, and in quality control protocols for blood derived products due to its parental transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To determine breed, age, and sex predispositions for fecalith obstruction and to evaluate short-term survival and prognostic factors following surgical treatment of fecalith intestinal obstruction in equids. ANIMALS: 151 equids. METHODS: Medical records of equids undergoing surgery for fecalith obstruction from 2000 to 2020 were reviewed. Signalment, history, presenting clinicopathological data, surgical findings, complications, and short-term survival were recorded and compared between survivors and nonsurvivors. Signalment of the fecalith population was compared to a contemporaneous colic population. Clinical factors were assessed for association with outcome. RESULTS: 64 females, 53 castrated males, and 31 intact males were ncluded. Three equids presented twice. Miniature horses, ponies, and miniature donkeys/mules represented 48% (71/148) of fecalith population and full-sized breeds represented 52% (77/148). Miniature horses and ponies were overrepresented and equids 5 1 year of age were overrepresented in the fecalith population compared to the colic population. One hundred thirty-nine equids (92%) survived to discharge, 6% (9/148) were euthanized intraoperatively, and 2% (3/148) were euthanized during hospitalization. Nonsurvivors showed more severe colic signs on admission, tachycardia on admission, and hyperlipemia. Equids with postoperative colic (P = .01) and complications (P = .002) were less likely to survive. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Miniature horses and ponies were overrepresented compared to the colic population; however, full-sized breeds were also affected. Surgical treatment had an excellentshort-term prognosis. Severe colic signs, tachycardia, hyperlipemia, postoperative colic, and surgical complications negatively affected short-term survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Animals adjust their habitat use patterns in response to changes in their physiological needs and environmental conditions. Understanding the mechanisms underlying resource selection and space use across time and space reveals effects of the environment on animals' decisions. We explored the effects of habitat availability and heterogeneity on the seasonal and annual space use and resource selection of two free‐roaming feral burro (Equus asinus) populations in the United States within distinct climate and habitat conditions: the Sonoran Desert and the Colorado Plateau. As an introduced yet protected species in the United States, understanding burros' interactions with habitat elements is important for their conservation and management, as well as the conservation of sympatric wildlife. We used GPS locations of female burros (72 animals across both study areas) to delineate annual and seasonal ranges and resource selection patterns. We evaluated effects of mean and CV of habitat covariates, including forage, distance to water, and topography, representing availability and heterogeneity of resources, on seasonal and annual range size of burros. Moreover, we explored how burro seasonal and annual resource selection patterns were affected by availability and heterogeneity of resources. In the Sonoran Desert study area, burros had smaller seasonal and annual ranges and constant resource selection patterns across a year, likely due to a freshwater lake in the area, making water a nonlimiting resource. Human presence was the greatest factor affecting range size and resource selection in the Sonoran Desert, where burros selected for areas near roads and human recreation. In the Colorado Plateau study area, where resources were more seasonal, we found larger range sizes and fluctuating resource selection patterns compared to the Sonoran Desert population. Spatial variation in forage, water, and topography significantly affected range size of burros inhabiting the Colorado Plateau study area. Productive habitats with available water support smaller ranges and a more consistent pattern of resource selection. Our results highlight the positive effect of habitat heterogeneity and the negative effect of habitat productivity on range size of animals. Our findings contribute to an improved understanding of habitat requirements for free‐roaming burros that currently live under various climate and habitat conditions globally.

LINE-1 is an active transposable element encoding proteins capable of inserting host gene retrocopies, resulting in retro-copy number variants (retroCNVs) between individuals. Here, we performed retroCNV discovery using 86 equids and identified 437 retrocopy insertions. Only 5 retroCNVs were shared between horses and other equids, indicating that the majority of retroCNVs inserted after the species diverged. A large number (17-35 copies) of segmentally duplicated Ligand Dependent Nuclear Receptor Corepressor Like (LCORL) retrocopies were present in all equids but absent from other extant perissodactyls. The majority of LCORL transcripts in horses and donkeys originate from the retrocopies. The initial LCORL retrotransposition occurred 18 million years ago (17-19 95% CI), which is coincident with the increase in body size, reduction in digit number, and changes in dentition that characterized equid evolution. Evolutionary conservation of the LCORL retrocopy segmental amplification in the Equidae family, high expression levels and the ancient timeline for LCORL retrotransposition support a functional role for this structural variant.

ABSTRACT In veterinary medicine, there are few descriptions in scientific literature referring ultrasound techniques in the cervical region of mules and donkeys. Based on patterns observed in horses, ultrasound-guided infiltrations are used for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. In this study, cervical joints were evaluated in 13 donkeys (12 females and 1 male) with mean weight of 133kg and ages between 4 and 16 years, and additionally 05 mules and 09 donkeys, with mean weight of 393kg and ages between 4 and 15 years, all of them were mixed breed. The ultrasound examinations were performed using a variable frequency linear transducer 3 to 11 Mhz. The scan protocol was performed starting on the dorsal aspect of each vertebra, followed by an assessment of the cranial region to the caudal portion of the vertebra, towards the joint processes, longitudinal and in the caudal direction of the joint. Variations of the angulation allowed the exact location of the joint processes and the corresponding joint, from the joint between cervical vertebra C2-C3 to the joint between C6-C7 and the corresponding references images. The results observed show that these ultrasound techniques can guide cervical intra-articular puncture in donkeys and mules, and it is possible used for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes, and it is suggested that more studies in this sense be performed.

Reintroduced animals face disease risks, potentially impacting both the reintroduced and the local wildlife/domestic populations. This study focuses on the Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus) reintroduced to the Negev desert in southern Israel. Despite potential threats of disease spill-over to and from domesticated donkeys and horses in the area, there are no records of the gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of the wild ass population. We used DNA metabarcoding on fecal samples of wild asses collected across seasons and habitats, near water sources that they frequently use. Ten GIN species were detected in the feces, nine belonging to the family Strongylidae, which commonly infects and causes disease in equids worldwide, such as horses, zebras, and donkeys. Some of these Strongylidae species are also found in domesticated equids in Israel, thus raising concerns regarding potential parasite transmission between wild and domestic animals. The high prevalence of certain GIN species suggests frequent transmission, likely due to the congregation of the wild asses around water sources. While we observed statistically significant variations in some GIN species across seasons and habitats, we did not find clear overall differences between GIN communities. DNA metabarcoding proves to be a valuable tool for identifying GIN species in wild animals, with potential applications in monitoring their health and preventing disease transmission to and from domestic animals.

Cacipacoré virus (CPCV) was discovered in 1977 deep in the Amazon rainforest from the blood of a black-faced ant thrush (Formicarius analis). As a member of the family Flaviviridae and genus orthoflavivirus, CPCV's intricate ecological association with vectors and hosts raises profound questions. CPCV's transmission cycle may involve birds, rodents, equids, bovines, marsupials, non-human primates, and bats as potential vertebrate hosts, whereas Culex and Aedes spp. mosquitoes have been implicated as potential vectors of transmission. The virus' isolation across diverse biomes, including urban settings, suggests its adaptability, as well as presents challenges for its accurate diagnosis, and thus its impact on veterinary and human health. With no specific treatment or vaccine, its prevention hinges on traditional arbovirus control measures. Here, we provide an overview of its ecology, transmission cycles, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and prevention, aiming at improving our ability to better understand this neglected arbovirus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Equids often live and work below welfare standards till exhaustion and die painfully. Euthanasia for humane reasons should be considered in some situations. Scientific evidence on the most common diseases of working equids is still limited. This study aimed to describe the population and disorders of the equids that arrived at the Egypt Equine Aid clinic (Cairo, Egypt) from 2019 to 2022. Secondly, it aimed to find any possible association between physical parameters at admission and outcome (i.e., discharged, euthanasia, or dead). The results of this study showed that working equids suffered mainly from wounds, orthopaedic problems, colics, and infectious diseases. In addition, in the univariable ordinal regression, some easy-to-assess physical parameters, namely the abnormal colour of the mucous membrane, highly increased capillary refill time, and increased heart rate, were associated with the non-survival outcome (i.e., euthanasia or dead). In conclusion, owner education and timely medical assistance in case of need remain the central focus to ensure a life worth living for working equids. This study to our best knowledge represents the first one to describe the disease prevalence of the working equid population around the Cairo area and to identify critical points to improve their quality of life. Working equids are often used to exhaustion, living and dying in conditions below minimal welfare standards. Due to their poor welfare status, euthanasia should be considered in certain conditions. The study aimed to describe the population and the disease frequency of the working equids admitted at an equine clinic in Cairo (i.e., Egypt Equine Aid (EEA)) from 2019 to 2022 and identify possible associations between physical parameters at admission and the outcome. Records of 1360 equids admitted at EEA were reviewed. The majority of the admitted equids were horses (65.6%), followed by donkeys (33%), in particular stallions (68.7%), from 1 to 15 years old (74.8%). Hospitalisation was mainly due to wounds (28.9%), orthopaedic problems (27.4%), colic (8.5%), or infectious diseases (7.4%). The majority of the equids were discharged, but 5.1% died on their own, without human intervention, and 23% were euthanised. Text mining revealed the anamnesis's most frequent words were 'accident', 'lameness', and 'wound'. In addition, owners sometimes reported using inappropriate remedies (e.g., firing) before hospitalisation. Multivariable ordinal regression analysis performed between physical parameters and the outcome (ordered based on severity: discharged, euthanasia, and dead) revealed that sex (male vs. female: OR = 1.33; p < 0.05), colour of the mucous membrane (pathological vs. physiological: OR = 1.72; p < 0.01), and capillary refill time (pathological vs. physiological: OR = 1.42; p = 0.02) increased the likelihood of a non-survival outcome. In conclusion, early euthanasia should be considered for these equids, to minimise prolonged suffering. Moreover, owners' education is recommended to guarantee minimal welfare standards to the working equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Piroplasmosis is responsible for anemia, fever, loss of physical activity and even death in equines. In epidemiological studies, accurate diagnostic tests are essential for detecting asymptomatic carriers. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of infection in asymptomatic horses from Lorestan province, western Iran by developing a multiplex PCR. Methods and results: Blood samples were examined by microscopy and multiplex PCR targeting the SSU rRNA gene of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi. Out of the total of 165 horses, 19 (11.51%) and 31 (18.78%) cases were positive for piroplasms by microscopy and PCR, respectively. The detection rates of both genera were significantly higher in multiplex PCR compared to microscopy (p < 0.0001). Compared with multiplex PCR, the sensitivities of microscopy for the detection of Babesia were only 28.5%. The prevalence of T. equi infection was significantly higher in summer (p = 0.035). The prevalence of B. caballi was significantly higher in males (p = 0.038). Conclusion: Findings indicate that the multiplex PCR described here is a sensitive technique for the detection of piroplasm DNA in carriers. Furthermore, asymptomatic carriers must be considered as an important source of infection for equids living in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Mixed strongylid infections significantly impact equine health and performance. Traditional microscopy-based methods exhibit limitations in accurately identifying strongylid species. Nemabiome deep amplicon sequencing approach previously succeeded in describing the strongylid communities in livestock including equids. However, there are no available studies that describe the structural communities of strongylid parasites in horses in Thailand. Therefore, this study was undertaken encompassing the ITS-2 rDNA metabarcoding assay to characterize strongylid species within horse fecal samples collected from a cohort of yearlings at the largest domesticated stud farm in Thailand. In addition, to investigate the capability of ITS-2 rDNA in assessing the phylogenetic relationships among the identified strongylid species. Results: The study identified 14 strongylid species in the examined equine populations, each with varying prevalence. Notably, Cylicocyclus nassatus and Cylicostephanus longibursatus were identified as the predominant species, with Strongylus spp. conspicuously absent. The phylogenetic analysis of 207 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) displayed a complex relationship among the investigated cyathostomin species, with some species are positioned across multiple clades, demonstrating close associations with various species and genera. Conclusion: The ITS-2 nemabiome sequencing technique provided a detailed picture of horse strongylid parasite species in the studied population. This establishes a foundation for future investigations into the resistance status of these parasites and enables efforts to mitigate their impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Psychotherapy, learning, and other interventions incorporating animals are on the rise. Researchers are interested in outcomes for human recipients and intervention animals. This study addressed the welfare of intervention animals by observing maintenance behaviors, which are daily activities that animals emit for survival (e.g., eating, moving, and sleeping). The researchers scanned the pasture before, during, and after equine-assisted (psychosocial) learning sessions, recording horses' alertness, eating, and movement, which differed. The researchers also measured human–horse interaction, recording when humans approached the horses or the horses approached humans during equine-assisted learning sessions. These interactions were mostly from humans toward horses. Humans initiated and reciprocated interactions with horses, while horses mostly ignored or avoided interactions with humans. Applying a symbiosis framework to examine the costs and benefits of equine-assisted intervention, these findings on maintenance behavior suggest a potential cost for the animals—an interruption of or alteration in their maintenance behavior. This study examined human–animal symbiosis in an animal-assisted intervention through observations of animal maintenance behaviors. The rise of psychotherapy, learning, and recreation incorporating animals warrants exploration of the welfare of the animals involved in these interventions. The analysis of welfare in multispecies engagements can be discussed in terms of symbiosis. Regarding an intervention's animal provider (e.g., therapy horse) and human recipient (psychotherapy client), the balance of cost and benefit is important. Research describing human and animal interactive behavior during interventions is limited, whether focusing on client outcomes or animal welfare. The present study adapted ethological methods to study humans and animals in an equine-assisted intervention, observing equine maintenance behaviors and equid–human interactive behavior. Maintenance behaviors were recorded before, during, and after equine-assisted (psychosocial) learning sessions with youth, providing 1600 observations. Equine alertness, eating behavior, and ambulation varied significantly before, during, and after the equine-assisted sessions. Such interruptions of typical behavior are an important aspect of welfare and unit of analysis when examining symbiotic relationships. A total of 267 sequences of equid–human approach–response behavior were also recorded, indicating that human–animal interaction was predominantly from humans toward equids. Equids' dominant response to human approach was no response, followed by avoidance, while humans' dominant response to equid approach was reciprocation. The findings are discussed in terms of symbiosis and animal welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Linxia Basin is characterized by an abundance of Cenozoic sediments, that contain exceptionally rich fossil resources. Equids are abundant in the Linxia Basin, the fossil record of equids in this region including 16 species that represent 10 genera. In comparison to other classic late Cenozoic areas in China, the Linxia Basin stands out, because the fauna and chronological data accompanying Linxia equids render them remarkably useful for biostratigraphy. The anchitheriines in the region, such as Anchitherium and Sinohippus, represent early equids that appeared in the late stages of the middle and late Miocene, respectively. Among the equines, most species of Chinese hipparions have been identified in the Linxia Basin and some species of the genera Hipparion and Hippotherium have FAD records for China. Furthermore, Equus eisenmannae is one of the earliest known species of Equus in the Old World and is well‐represented at the Longdan locality. Some species with precise geohistorical distributions can serve as standards for high‐resolution chronological units within this framework. Located at the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and subject to considerable uplift, the Linxia Basin has served as a biogeographic transition area for equids throughout the late Cenozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Equus was represented on the Iberian Peninsula by four species during the late Quaternary: the wild, now extinct, E. ferus (wild horse) and E. hydruntinus (European wild ass) and the extant, domestic E. caballus (horse) and E. asinus (donkey). The distribution and timing of the extinctions of the wild species and arrival of the domestic species is important to understand the changing environment and cultures through this dynamic period in one of the three southern Pleistocene glacial refugia in Europe. Here we collected data from all zooarchaeological studies that meet basic completeness criteria from the Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age (45–3.2 ka bp) and analysed the equine data in light of other large mammals at the same sites in order to document the species turnover and distributions through this culturally and ecologically dynamic period. The vast majority of Palaeolithic Equus were confidently identified as E. ferus, and by the Bronze age as E. caballus, with much uncertainty in between. Over time the larger equids (horses) were much more common than the smaller equids (asses). Equids were not common, but they were distributed across the southern Iberian peninsula through the Chalcolithic, and then appear to have become restricted to the drier eastern region in the Bronze Age. These analyses indicate that both E. ferus and E. hydruntinus went extinct by the end of the Pleistocene/Palaeolithic in Andalucia. Not all communities maintained equal numbers of equids, and their distribution changed with the changing climate through time, most notably between the Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age when confidence in species identification and local density of horses increase, but the distribution is restricted to the drier eastern region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African horse sickness (AHS) is a non-contagious arthropod-borne infectious disease of Equidae. Because of its severity and quick spread, It is cosidered as a notifiable disease. The current study intended to look into the current suitation of the vector-borne African horse sickness virus (AHSV) in Egypt, determine viral seroprevelance, and assess the associated risk factors. In this context, 2739 sera and 150 spleen samples were collected from different Egyptian governorates and tested for AHSV screening. The sera were investigated for presence of antibodies against AHSV whilst spleen samples were tested for AHSV Ag and RNA detection. The obtained results revealed that all 2739 sera samples tested negative for AHSV antibodies. Furthermore, using ELISA and conventional reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), to identify AHSV Ag and nucleic acid, the 150 tested spleen samples gave negative results with both assays. In conclusion, the recorded results indicated the absence of antibodies, antigen, and viral nucleic acid of AHSV in all tested samples which proved that there is no circulating virus in the investigated Egyptian governorates in the period from 2017 to 2022. Evenually, the effective control programs are recommended by carrying out further epidemiological investigations to understand the current situation of arboviruses in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To validate a novel technique to measure limb stiffness in a clinical setting. Animals: Three horses and three ponies owned by the Royal Veterinary College. Procedures: Limb stiffness indices for both forelimbs were first derived using the gold standard of kinematic analysis. Using the same animals, limb stiffness indices were then calculated using portable floor scales to record weight and an electrogoniometer to record changes in metacarpophalangeal joint angle. The two techniques were then assessed for correlation and repeatability. Results: The repeatability of limb stiffness measurement using the novel clinical tool was considered to be good based on a small coefficient of variation (5.70%). The correlation of limb stiffness as derived by both methods was high (r = 0.78, p < 0.01). Limb stiffness was positively correlated with the mass of the subject (r = 0.85, p < 0.01), with heavier horses having greater limb stiffness. Clinical relevance: This study has compared a novel method to measure distal forelimb stiffness non-invasively in a clinical setting to kinematic analysis in six equids. It has demonstrated that limb stiffness increases in a linear fashion with body mass consistent with the role of forelimbs providing energy storage. Because in vivo limb stiffness has been shown previously to alter with injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon, it is hypothesized that this technique will offer a practical technique for the clinician to assess limb stiffness in clinical cases. Further study will be necessary to determine its clinical usefulness in such cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to analyze the epidemiological profile of Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) in the Americas. A cross-sectional, descriptive, retrospective, and quantitative investigation was carried out involving countries located in the Americas. The data were collected from information available in official databases. In the studied period, 74,932 cases were notified in the Americas (except Brazil). In Brazil, 73,536 cases were reported and prevalence of 1.3 case per 100 animals, with the states of Ceará, Maranhão, Roraima, and Alagoas. The state of Ceará, Piauí, and the Federal District had the lowest number of cases per focus, which suggests greater spread of the disease in these states. The conclusion is that Brazil has a low prevalence of reported EIA; however, the importance of the disease for the sector, measures of active surveillance in animals should be adopted and preventive actions in the context of One Health implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Acute stress can manifest physiologically through a "stress leukogram" (neutrophilia, eosinopenia, lymphopenia, and mild monocytosis), with eosinopenia as one of its main indicators. Changes in cortisol concentrations, the primary stress biomarker, whether measured in blood or saliva, strongly correlate with the severity of gastrointestinal diseases in equids. Recently, eosinophil count has been used to identify critically ill horses and as a prognostic marker in horses with Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome or SIRS. However, the relationship between both parameters has not been proven. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the possible differences in eosinophil count in horses with acute abdominal diseases that survived and non-survived upon hospitalization and its relationship with salivary cortisol. It was demonstrated that non-surviving horses showed the lowest eosinophil count, and a strong correlation (negative) was observed between cortisol and eosinophil count. Thus, eosinophil count could be a potential prognosis biomarker in horses with acute abdominal diseases. Stress leukogram includes eosinopenia as one of its main markers (neutrophilia, eosinopenia, lymphopenia, and mild monocytosis). Cortisol is the main stress biomarker, which is also strongly correlated with the severity of gastrointestinal diseases. This study aimed to determine the relationship between salivary cortisol and the eosinophil cell count (EC) in equids with abdominal pain. To do this, 39 horses with abdominal pain referred to an emergency service were included. All samples were taken on admission, and several parameters and clinical data were included. Equids were classified according to the outcome as survivors and non-survivors. Non-surviving equids presented higher salivary cortisol concentrations (Non-Survivors: 1.580 ± 0.816 µg/dL; Survivors 0.988 ± 0.653 µg/dL; p < 0.05) and lower EC (Non-Survivors: 0.0000 × 103/µL (0.000/0.0075); Survivors: 0.0450 × 103/µL (0.010/0.1825); p < 0.01). In addition, the relationship between salivary cortisol concentration, EC, and the WBC was determined. Only a strong correlation (negative) was observed between cortisol and EC (r = −0.523, p < 0.01). Since cortisol is not an analyte that can be measured routinely in clinical settings such as emergencies, the EC could be a good alternative. While the results are promising, further studies are needed before EC can be used confidently in routine practice to predict survival in cases of abdominal pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous surveys and three excavation and surface collection field seasons resulted in the discovery of numerous megafaunal remains and that of a medium-sized felid in a new site located on the coastal plain of the Gulf of Venezuela, in Western Falcón State. The faunal assemblage is represented by South American natives such as megatheres (cf. Eremotherium laurillardi), an indeterminate mylodontid and a glyptodont (probably related to Glyptotherium) and Nearctic representatives such as gomphotheres (Notiomastodon platensis), equids (Equus sp.) and a feline (Felidae cf. Leopardus pardalis), providing novel information for the distribution of some of these mammals. Radiocarbon indicates that this deposit is at least 40,000 years old. Lithic artefacts of a kind reported for other Pleistocene sites in the region document the presence of humans in Cauca, but as these cultural remains were found on the surface, their association with the fauna is uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study described the prevalence and factors associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in working equids in the semiarid regionofnortheastern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 322 equids (76 horses, 155 mules and 91 donkeys). The Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) was used as a screening method. Samples that were reactive in the RBPT were tested for confirmation using 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) and the standard tube agglutination test (STAT). Overall, 7.1% (23/322) of the samples were positive according to the RBPT. After confirmatory tests, the prevalence of brucellosis was found to be 6.5% (21/322). Among these cases, 33.3% (7/21) were horses, 42.8% (9/21) were mules and 23.9% (5/21) were donkeys. In the multivariate analysis, age over 10 years was considered to be a factor associated with the seropositivity (OR: 17.17; 95% CI: 2.582-164.7, P = 0.006) for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies. The significant prevalence of anti-Brucella spp. antibodies found in working equids and the wide distribution of positive animals demonstrates a worrying epidemiological situation regarding brucellosis in the study region. Age over 10 years was a risk factor associated with the seropositivity for anti-Brucella spp. antibodies in animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. The article discusses the results of a study of ash layers from Holocene deposits at the Selungur (Surungur) Cave. Goals. So, the work attempts a practical evaluation of a method of identifying coprostanols in archaeological sediments. The investigation of Holocene deposits of the site was carried out in 2018 and 2021 field seasons. The study identifies a total of 7 Holocene layers that represent the typical ‘fumier’ facies of cave and rock shelter deposits connected to pastoralism and animal husbandry practices, and built up of stratified layers of burnt herbivore dung. The sequence contains a record of multiple earthquakes that disturbed the sediments and effected in water escape structures, plastic deformations, and faults. Nevertheless, the stratigraphy remains easily readable. Unfortunately, archaeological and paleofaunistic materials were never found but a series of ash-containing interlayers suggests that the cave was repeatedly visited by ancient humans. Materials. In the ash deposits, our micro charcoal analysis has identified areas of concentration of burnt dungs which was used for fire. Series of samples were taken throughout the section of Holocene deposits for gas mass spectrometry analysis. The research efforts have also included the analysis of modern dung from herbivores inhabiting the area, such as cows, sheep, goats, horses and donkeys, for the latter obtained data to serve as a reference collection. Results. Unfortunately, layer 7 of the Selungur Cave proved characterized by poor preservation of fire products, while layers 6–1 yielded somewhat rich data. The obtained results make it possible to identify coprosterols and determine that equine dung was used in layers 6-2 as a fuel, and goat dung — in the first layer. The most widespread distribution of equines in this region occurred during the existence of Dayuan (Parkan) state, in the third century BC and later in the Middle Ages. Most likely, during these periods the mountain corridor comprising the Selungur Cave could have been used as a pass of the Silk Road that connected the Fergana and Alay valleys. The accumulation of the upper layer, in our opinion, is associated with the modern era.

While the principle definitive host of the zoonotic cestode Echinococcus multilocularis in Europe is the red fox, several rodent species act as main intermediate hosts. Among others, e.g., humans, dogs, and pigs, also horses have been described to act as aberrant hosts in highly endemic regions. Here, a case of an E. multilocularis infection in a kulan (Equus hemionus kulan) is described. The five years old kulan from a zoo in Slovakia was transported to an animal park in Germany. The animal had to be euthanized within a few weeks after the import due to its poor general state of health. The pathological examination revealed a nodular mass in the liver as an incidental finding. By histological examination of the mass, a pyogranulomatous and necrotizing inflammation and intralesional fragments of amorphous eosinophil layers were detected. The suspected diagnosis of E. multilocularis infection was confirmed by PCR addressing parts of the genes 12S rRNA and the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2, showing very high identities with isolates from France, Slovakia and the USA.

Simple Summary: Working equids represent a source of livelihood for vulnerable communities in low and middle-income countries. This has been widely demonstrated by research conducted in various contexts, which is available to policymakers. Nevertheless, the important social and economic role of working equids is overlooked and they are excluded by governments and international organisations from animal health policies and interventions, with detrimental effects on animal welfare, human wellbeing and livelihoods. By reviewing the literature available on the subject, this study aims to investigate the effects of diseases of working equids on the economic and social assets of their owners. Results show that working equid diseases severely damage livelihoods, human health and social assets. This study explores the relationship between working equid health, livelihoods and human health according to the 'One Health' approach that enables us to evaluate the implications of a particular problem on human, animal and environmental health. Through the 'One Health' approach, this study will serve as a resource to sensitise policymakers on the need to develop policies and interventions aimed at protecting the health and welfare of working equids and, consequently, the health and livelihoods of their owners. It is hoped that the 'One Health' approach applied within this study will provide an opportunity to also reach those policymakers who have not yet recognised the multiple implications of working equid health on human health, wellbeing and livelihoods. Working equids provide a crucial contribution to the livelihoods and food security of communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Nevertheless, they are a neglected category within animal health policies and interventions of governmental and non-governmental institutions. This critical review aims to assess the socioeconomic impact of diseases of working equids in LMICs. By highlighting the implications of diseases on working equid welfare, human wellbeing and livelihoods, this review seeks to sensitise policymakers within governments and international organisations to develop policies and interventions aimed at protecting the health of working equids and, consequently, the health and livelihoods of their dependent communities. Twenty relevant publications were identified through the search of five databases (CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collection, BIOSIS, EMBASE and Scopus), backward citation searching and screening of indexes of proceedings and Special Issues retrieved from the database search. The review findings show that diseases of working equids have detrimental socioeconomic effects. However, this subject is under-researched and restricted to few diseases and geographical settings. Considering the complexity of the issue, this review demonstrates that the 'One Health' approach represents an opportunity to clarify the link between equid health, human wellbeing and livelihoods, facilitating the translation of research into policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the principle definitive host of the zoonotic cestode Echinococcus multilocularis in Europe is the red fox, several rodent species act as main intermediate hosts. Among others, e.g., humans, dogs, and pigs, also horses have been described to act as aberrant hosts in highly endemic regions. Here, a case of an E. multilocularis infection in a kulan (Equus hemionus kulan) is described. The five years old kulan from a zoo in Slovakia was transported to an animal park in Germany. The animal had to be euthanized within a few weeks after the import due to its poor general state of health. The pathological examination revealed a nodular mass in the liver as an incidental finding. By histological examination of the mass, a pyogranulomatous and necrotizing inflammation and intralesional fragments of amorphous eosinophil layers were detected. The suspected diagnosis of E. multilocularis infection was confirmed by PCR addressing parts of the genes 12S rRNA and the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2, showing very high identities with isolates from France, Slovakia and the USA. [Display omitted] • First report of alveolar echinoccocosis in a kulan. • Intrahepatic encapsulated mass with intralesional fragments of amorphous eosinophil and PAS-positive band-like structures. • Herein obtained sequence revealed high similarities with E. multilocularis isolates from France, Slovakia and USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Objective: Equine herpes viruses (EHVs) are considered one of the most important respiratory pathogens in equids, resulting in serious outcomes for equine health worldwide. The objectives of the current research were the detection, molecular characterization, and isolation of EHV-1 and EHV-4 circulating within different equine populations in Egypt, either clinically or in apparently healthy horses. Material and Methods: A total of 120 field samples were collected, and DNA was extracted. Screening and typing of extracted DNA were done by consensus and conventional PCR assays for detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis to confirm the virus identity. Selected positive samples for both EHV-1 and EHV-4 were subjected to Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cell lines for virus isolation. Results: The obtained results revealed that 58/120 (48%) samples were positive for EHVs. Typing of positive samples showed that EHV-1 was detected in (48/120) 40% of samples and EHV-4 was detected in (15/120) 12% of samples, while dual infection by both EHV-1 and 4 was detected in five samples. Conclusion: The current study revealed new data on the continuous circulation of EHV-1 and EHV-4 within equine populations in Egypt, and individual horses could be infected by multiple EHVs. In addition, latently infected horses are acting as potential reservoirs for frequent virus reactivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Equid alphaherpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) is a global viral pathogen of domestic equids which causes reproductive, respiratory and neurological disease. Few isolates acquired from naturally infected USA-based hosts have been fully sequenced and analyzed to date. An ORF 30 (DNA polymerase) variant (A2254G) has previously been associated with neurological disease in host animals. The purpose of this study was to perform phylogenomic analysis of EHV-1 isolates acquired from USA-based hosts and compare these isolates to previously sequenced global isolates. Methods: EHV-1 was isolated from 23 naturally infected USA-based equids (6 different states, 15 disease outbreaks) with reproductive (22/23) or neurological disease (1/23). Following virus isolation, EHV-1 DNA was extracted for sequencing using Illumina MiSeq. Following reference-based assembly, whole viral genomes were annotated and assessed. Previously sequenced EHV-1 isolates (n = 114) obtained from global host equids were included in phylogenomic analyses. Results: The overall average genomic distance was 0.0828% (SE 0.004%) for the 23 newly sequenced USA isolates and 0.0705% (SE 0.003%) when all 137 isolates were included. Clade structure was predominantly based on geographic origin. Numerous nucleotide substitutions (mean [range], 179 [114–297] synonymous and 81 [38–120] non-synonymous substitutions per isolate) were identified throughout the genome of the newly sequenced USA isolates. The previously described ORF 30 A2254G substitution (associated with neurological disease) was found in only one isolate obtained from a host with non-neurological clinical signs (reproductive disease), six additional, unique, non-synonymous ORF 30 substitutions were detected in 22/23 USA isolates. Evidence of recombination was present in most (22/23) of the newly sequenced USA isolates. Conclusions: Overall, the genomes of the 23 newly sequenced EHV-1 isolates obtained from USA-based hosts were broadly similar to global isolates. The previously described ORF 30 A2254G neurological substitution was infrequently detected in the newly sequenced USA isolates, most of which were obtained from host animals with reproductive disease. Recombination was likely to be partially responsible for genomic diversity in the newly sequenced USA isolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zooarchaeological analyses of the skeletal remains of 52 animals unearthed in the courtyard of an Iron Age Tartessian building known as Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain) shed light on a massive sacrifice forming part of a series of rituals linked to the site's last period of activity and final abandonment. The rites took place towards the end of the 5th century BCE when both the building (intentionally destroyed) and the sacrificed animals were intentionally buried under a tumulus 90 m in diameter and 6 m high. The main objective of the zooarchaeological and microstratigraphic analyses was to determine the phasing of the sacrificial depositions. Evidence gathered from taphonomic assessments and a series of radiocarbon datings indicate that the sacrifices fall into three consecutive phases spanning several years. The findings of the zooarchaeological analyses clearly point to a selection of equid and cattle males. Adult equids predominate (MNI = 41) followed by adult and sub-adult cattle (MNI = 6). Pigs, in turn, are only represented by a few adults and sub-adult females (MNI = 4). Among the animals is a single dog of undetermined sex between 3 and 4 years of age. The fact that the animals are mostly adults discards the likelihood that they died from natural causes or an epidemic. In addition, the scenographic deposition of certain equids in pairs, as well as evidence of the burning of plant offerings, suggest an intentional ritualistic sacrifice. Nine of the initial depositions of Phase 1 in the SE quadrant were scattered and certain of their bones bear marks characteristic of both prolonged open air exposure and scavengers. Another 31 animals from Phases 1 and 2 are represented by almost complete, articulated skeletons, indicating they were promptly covered. Phase 3, by contrast, reveals both almost complete and partial animals bearing clear signs of processing for human consumption. This study thus sheds light on both the sequence of the animal sacrifices and the protocols linked to rites accompanied by the celebration of banquets. Certain features associated with the sealing of this building under a tumulus offer evidence of the decline of the Tartessian Culture. This study thus advances notions serving to contextualize ritual animal sacrifices in the framework of practice observed at other Iron Age sites in the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere throughout Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We generated single haplotype assemblies from a hinny hybrid which significantly improved the gapless contiguity for horse and donkey autosomal genomes and the X chromosomes. We added over 15 Mb of missing sequence to both X chromosomes, 60 Mb to donkey autosomes and corrected numerous errors in donkey and some in horse reference genomes. We resolved functionally important X-linked repeats: the DXZ4 macrosatellite and ampliconic Equine Testis Specific Transcript Y7 (ETSTY7). We pinpointed the location of the pseudoautosomal boundaries (PAB) and determined the size of the horse (1.8 Mb) and donkey (1.88 Mb) pseudoautosomal regions (PARs). We discovered distinct differences in horse and donkey PABs: a testis-expressed gene, XKR3Y, spans horse PAB with exons1–2 located in Y and exon3 in the X–Y PAR, whereas the donkey XKR3Y is Y-specific. DXZ4 had a similar ~ 8 kb monomer in both species with 10 copies in horse and 20 in donkey. We assigned hundreds of copies of ETSTY7, a sequence horizontally transferred from Parascaris and massively amplified in equids, to horse and donkey X chromosomes and three autosomes. The findings and products contribute to molecular studies of equid biology and advance research on X-linked conditions, sex chromosome regulation and evolution in equids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents historical and evolutionary insights into the "tarpan" group of small horses by examining molar tooth enamel ultrastructure. Mathematical methodologies were applied to enhance the analysis. Tooth enamel from species such as Equus gmelini (tarpan), E. latipes, and E. hydruntinus from Pleistocene Ukrainian localities, E. przewalskii from the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone in Ukraine, and E. caballus form sylvaticus (Polish konik) from Roztocze National Park, Poland, underwent scanning microscope examination. Measurements of enamel structures, including prisms (PE) and interprismatic matrix (IPM), were conducted, with the K-index used as their ratio, categorized by enamel type (I, II, III). The findings confirmed that the crystal structures of enamel in these horse groups vary based on genus evolution, diet, and environmental conditions, shaping the enamel's morphological features. Through analysis, clusters were identified, allowing for potential reconstructions of relationships among study groups. The results revealed distinct differences between species, enabling their classification within an established phenogram. Two primary clusters emerged: one consisting of extinct small horse forms from diverse localities and another grouping modern forms. Notably, the Late Pleistocene European species E. latipes showed close affinities to the latter cluster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camelids are the only living representatives of the Suborder Tylopoda, and present a unique set of osteo‐myological masticatory features, differing from all other extant euungulates. They combine selenodont dentition and rumination with a fused symphysis, and roughly plesiomorphic muscle proportions. Despite its potential relevance as an euungulate model in comparative anatomy studies, the available data is strikingly scarce. The present study represents the first description of the masticatory muscles of a Lamini, analyzing the functional morphology of Lama glama and other camelids in a comparative framework. Both sides of the head of three adult specimens from Argentinean Puna were dissected. Descriptions, illustrations, muscular maps, and weighing of all masticatory muscles were performed. Some facial muscles are also described. The myology of llamas confirms that camelids possess relatively large temporalis muscles, with Lama being less extreme than Camelus. This plesiomorphic feature is also recorded in suines and some basal euungulates. Conversely, the direction of the fibers of the M. temporalis is mainly horizontal, resembling grinding euungulates such as equids, pecorans, and some derived suines. Although the M. masseter of camelids and equids do not reach the particularly modified configuration of pecorans, in which it is rostrally extended and arranged horizontally, the posterior sectors of Mm. masseter superficialis and pterygoideus medialis have acquired relatively horizontal disposition in the former lineages, suitable for protraction. The pterygoidei complex presents several bundles, and its relative size is intermediate between suines and derived grinding euungulates. The whole masticatory muscles are relatively light when compared to jaw weight. The evolution of the masticatory muscles and chewing of camelids implied that grinding abilities were reached with less extreme modifications of the topography and/or proportions than pecoran ruminants and equids. A relatively large M. temporalis recruited as a powerful retractor during the power stroke is a key feature of camelids. The relaxed pressure on chewing derived from the acquisition of rumination explains the slenderer build masticatory musculature of camelids compared to other euungulates except ruminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]