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The N-terminal tails of eukaryotic histones are frequently posttranslationally modified. The role of these modifications in transcriptional regulation is well-documented. However, the extent to which the enzymatic processes of histone posttranslational modification might affect metabolic regulation is less clear. Here, we investigated how histone methylation might affect metabolism using metabolomics, proteomics, and RNA-seq data from cancer cell lines, primary tumour samples and healthy tissue samples. In cancer, the expression of histone methyltransferases (HMTs) was inversely correlated to the activity of NNMT, an enzyme previously characterised as a methyl sink that disposes of excess methyl groups carried by the universal methyl donor S-adenosyl methionine (SAM or AdoMet). In healthy tissues, histone methylation was inversely correlated to the levels of an alternative methyl sink, PEMT. These associations affected the levels of multiple histone marks on chromatin genome-wide but had no detectable impact on transcriptional regulation. We show that HMTs with a variety of different associations to transcription are co-regulated by the Retinoblastoma (Rb) tumour suppressor in human cells. Rb-mutant cancers show increased total HMT activity and down-regulation of NNMT. Together, our results suggest that the total activity of HMTs affects SAM metabolism, independent of transcriptional regulation.

The N-terminal tails of eukaryotic histones are frequently posttranslationally modified. The role of these modifications in transcriptional regulation is well-documented. However, the extent to which the enzymatic processes of histone posttranslational modification might affect metabolic regulation is less clear. Here, we investigated how histone methylation might affect metabolism using metabolomics, proteomics, and RNA-seq data from cancer cell lines, primary tumour samples and healthy tissue samples. In cancer, the expression of histone methyltransferases (HMTs) was inversely correlated to the activity of NNMT, an enzyme previously characterised as a methyl sink that disposes of excess methyl groups carried by the universal methyl donor S-adenosyl methionine (SAM or AdoMet). In healthy tissues, histone methylation was inversely correlated to the levels of an alternative methyl sink, PEMT. These associations affected the levels of multiple histone marks on chromatin genome-wide but had no detectable impact on transcriptional regulation. We show that HMTs with a variety of different associations to transcription are co-regulated by the Retinoblastoma (Rb) tumour suppressor in human cells. Rb-mutant cancers show increased total HMT activity and down-regulation of NNMT. Together, our results suggest that the total activity of HMTs affects SAM metabolism, independent of transcriptional regulation.

The N-terminal tails of eukaryotic histones are frequently posttranslationally modified. The role of these modifications in transcriptional regulation is well-documented. However, the extent to which the enzymatic processes of histone posttranslational modification might affect metabolic regulation is less clear. Here, we investigated how histone methylation might affect metabolism using metabolomics, proteomics, and RNA-seq data from cancer cell lines, primary tumour samples and healthy tissue samples. In cancer, the expression of histone methyltransferases (HMTs) was inversely correlated to the activity of NNMT, an enzyme previously characterised as a methyl sink that disposes of excess methyl groups carried by the universal methyl donor S-adenosyl methionine (SAM or AdoMet). In healthy tissues, histone methylation was inversely correlated to the levels of an alternative methyl sink, PEMT. These associations affected the levels of multiple histone marks on chromatin genome-wide but had no detectable impact on transcriptional regulation. We show that HMTs with a variety of different associations to transcription are co-regulated by the Retinoblastoma (Rb) tumour suppressor in human cells. Rb-mutant cancers show increased total HMT activity and down-regulation of NNMT. Together, our results suggest that the total activity of HMTs affects SAM metabolism, independent of transcriptional regulation.

The N-terminal tails of eukaryotic histones are frequently posttranslationally modified. The role of these modifications in transcriptional regulation is well-documented. However, the extent to which the enzymatic processes of histone posttranslational modification might affect metabolic regulation is less clear. Here, we investigated how histone methylation might affect metabolism using metabolomics, proteomics, and RNA-seq data from cancer cell lines, primary tumour samples and healthy tissue samples. In cancer, the expression of histone methyltransferases (HMTs) was inversely correlated to the activity of NNMT, an enzyme previously characterised as a methyl sink that disposes of excess methyl groups carried by the universal methyl donor S-adenosyl methionine (SAM or AdoMet). In healthy tissues, histone methylation was inversely correlated to the levels of an alternative methyl sink, PEMT. These associations affected the levels of multiple histone marks on chromatin genome-wide but had no detectable impact on transcriptional regulation. We show that HMTs with a variety of different associations to transcription are co-regulated by the Retinoblastoma (Rb) tumour suppressor in human cells. Rb-mutant cancers show increased total HMT activity and down-regulation of NNMT. Together, our results suggest that the total activity of HMTs affects SAM metabolism, independent of transcriptional regulation.

(A) Boxplot shows t-values from linear mixed effects model for sample PEMT expression predicting ChIP-seq signal for various histone marks (label left) on gene bodies, promoters or repetitive elements (subpanel headers) in patient tissue samples collected as part of the ENCODE project. The number of individual sites is noted on the plot for each boxplot; p-values derive from paired Wilcoxon tests against a null distribution calculated by the mean t-value at each locus for 1,000 random expressed genes. (B) Heatmap showing H3K4me3 ChIP-seq signal (log2 fold change over input) over 1,000 random genes for 4 samples from the squamous epithelium of the esophagus arranged in order of PEMT expression. (C) Boxplot shows t-values from generalised linear models for NNMT expression (RNA-seq) predicting ChIP-seq signal for various histone marks (label left) on gene bodies and promoters in cell lines of the NCI60 cancer cell line panel. The number of individual sites is noted on the plot for each boxplot; p-values derive from paired Wilcoxon tests against a null distribution calculated by the mean t-value at each locus for 1,000 random expressed genes. (D) Boxplot shows t-values from generalised linear models for NNMT expression (RNA-seq) predicting ChIP-seq signal for various histone marks (label left) on different classes of repetitive elements in cell lines of the NCI60 cancer cell line panel. The number of individual sites is noted on the plot for each boxplot; p-values derive from paired Wilcoxon tests against a null distribution calculated by the mean t-value at each locus for 1,000 random expressed genes. Sites shown are from bin with highest ChIP signal (cf. S9D Fig). Underlying data for all panels can be found in https://zenodo.org/record/8383542. HERVs, human endogenous retroviruses; LINEs, long interspersed nuclear elements; LTRs, long terminal repeats; NNMT, nicotinamide N-methyltransferase; SINEs, short interspersed nuclear elements.

(A) Analysis showing rank percentile position of total HMTs among correlations of NNMT expression to 56,200 genes and vice versa in 48 distinct healthy tissue types from the GTEx project. Bubble size is inversely proportional to the log of the “relative reciprocal score,” the sum of squares of the ranks of total HMTs/NNMT in the reciprocal distribution (see Methods). The dashed grey box indicates correlations in the strongest 2.5% of anticorrelated genes, with tissues labelled. (B) Volcano plot showing Spearman’s correlation and FDR for expression of NNMT vs. 56,200 genes in a pan-cancer analysis of GTEx primary tumours across 48 tissue types. HMT-encoding genes are shown as points coloured according to association with transcriptional regulation; correlation for total HMT expression is shown as a black point. (C) Analysis showing rank percentile position of total HMTs among correlations of PEMT expression and vice versa in healthy tissue types from the GTEx project. Bubble size and dashed grey box as in panel 2A. (D) Volcano plot showing Spearman’s correlation and FDR for expression of PEMT vs. 56,200 genes in a cross-tissue analysis of 18 tissue types with a strong HMT-PEMT relationship (within the grey box in panel 2C). HMT-encoding genes are shown as points as in panel 2B. (E) Violin plot showing Spearman’s correlation to PEMT of HMTs (black, right) or other genes (left, grey) in 375 patient samples from the gastroesophageal junction. HMT-encoding genes are shown as points as in panel 2B. (F) Spearman’s correlation vs. PEMT expression of total expression of pooled HMTs added to the pool in a random order in a cross-tissue analysis of tissues with a strong HMT-PEMT relationship (within the grey box in panel 2C); 1,000 individual iterations are shown as black lines, with Loess fit trendline in red. (G) Analysis showing rank percentile position of total HMTs among correlations of PEMT expression to 60,489 genes and vice versa in 33 cancer types from the TCGA. Bubbl

(A) Volcano plot showing Pearson’s correlation and FDR for 225 metabolites to total HMT expression (total RNA-seq median of ratios-normalised pseudocounts) across 927 cancer cell lines from the CCLE. (B) Volcano plot showing Pearson’s correlation and FDR for expression of 10,275 expressed genes to levels of 1MNA across 927 CCLE cancer cell lines. The top and bottom 2.5% of points are shown in darker grey. HMT-encoding genes are shown as points coloured according to their association with transcriptional activation (green), repression (magenta), or an unclear relationship (blue). Pearson’s r for total HMT expression is shown as a black point. (C) PCA of metabolite levels across 927 cancer cell lines from the CCLE. 1MNA is highlighted with a red circle. (D) NNMT and HMTs both convert SAM to SAH and so can affect cellular methylation potential by acting as a “sink.” (E) Volcano plot showing Spearman’s correlation and FDR for expression of NNMT vs. 52,440 genes in a pan-cancer analysis of 927 CCLE cell lines across 23 cancer types. HMT-encoding genes are shown as points as in panel 1B. (F) Volcano plot showing Spearman’s correlation and FDR for expression of NNMT vs. 60,489 genes in a pan-cancer analysis of TCGA primary tumours across 33 cancer types. HMT-encoding genes are shown as points as in panel 1B. (G) Violin plot showing Spearman’s correlation to NNMT for HMTs (black, right) or other genes (left, grey) in 79 primary ACC tumours from the TCGA. Individual HMT-encoding genes are shown as points as in panel 1B. (H) Spearman’s correlation vs. NNMT expression of total expression of pooled HMTs added to the pool in a random order, and 1,000 individual iterations are shown as black lines, with the locally estimated smoothing (Loess fit) trendline shown in red. (I) TCGA pan-cancer analysis showing rank percentile position of total HMTs among correlations of NNMT expression to 60,489 genes and vice versa in 33 distinct cancer types. Bubble size is inversely proportional t

(A) Above: Sequence motif enriched in C. elegans HE cluster HMT promoters, relative to other HMTs promoters. Below: previously reported EFL-2 binding motif. (B) Binding of the C. elegans Retinoblastoma orthologue LIN-35 upstream of the TSS of the HE cluster, other HMT genes, and random genes; p-values from Wilcoxon test. (C) Enrichment for transcription factor binding, from ENCODE ChIP-seq experiments, upstream of human HMT genes. Odds ratios and p-value derived from Fisher’s exact test. (D) Boxplots show median total HMT or NNMT expression percentile drawn from 1,000 iterations of pan-cancer sampling of tumours with wild-type RB1 or potentially deleterious RB1 mutations; p-value derived from t test. (E) Total HMT expression in small cell lung cancer cell lines from the CCLE with wild-type RB1 or deleterious RB1 mutations; p-value derived from t test. (F) Estimated E2F1 activity vs. total HMT expression (both corrected for confounders) in breast cancer primary tumours from the TCGA. (G) Potential architectures of the GRN linking RB1, NNMT, and HMTs. (H) Linear model t-values explaining total HMT and NNMT expression for RB1 mutation status as the sole explanatory variable or jointly considered with NNMT/HMT expression respectively; p-value derived from t test. Underlying data for all panels can be found in https://zenodo.org/record/8383542. CCLE, Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia; GRN, gene regulatory network; HMT, histone methyltransferase; NNMT, nicotinamide N-methyltransferase; Rb, Retinoblastoma; TCGA, The Cancer Genome Atlas; TSS, transcription start site.

Plant-based food is the new worldwide trend for healthier processed food to promote better human heath and implement ways to eliminate animals from the food chain equation. Our food system and society are already under tremendous pressure with a food production that is no longer sustainable and is part of the planetary crisis we are currently experiencing (The Eat-Lancet Commission, 2019). One of the big global challenges is to feed the fast-growing human population while reducing the impact of the food systems on the planet and preserve economic viability, social welfare, and healthy nutrition. Overall, the food sector accounts for about 26% of the global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). Livestock derived products alone accounts to 18% of the global GHG emission (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Therefore, there is a gradual shift towards plant based diet, which is evident in modern time due to consumer demands for a innumerable variety of foods that can reduce or replace meat consumption will help to address animal welfare as well. In addition, the recent COVID-19 crisis challenged the world population with regards to consumption of animal sourced food products (meat and processed meat etc.), which were linked with potential ability of zoonotic pathogens to infect humans (Mascaraque, 2020). During the pandemic and subsequent lockdown periods, a disruption in supply chain of meat products has been observed and reflects the consumers’ desire to embrace healthier dietary habits (FutureBridge, 2021). At the same time, multiple factors call for better utilization of food side streams generated by the food industry which is otherwise used as fodder and fertilizer or discarded due to their short shelf life. Improved sustainability by utilizing food grade biomass in the food value chains as new functional and nutritional ingredient for application in foods, is well documented and articulated among global authorities, experts, industry and is an increase