Search

Context The use of crosses between Bos taurus and Bos indicus has boosted cattle production in tropical areas of Brazil, improving carcass and meat standards. However, there is little information on Canchim animals crossed with Nellore. Additionally, freezing is a preservation method frequently used by consumers, which allows meat to be preserved for a prolonged period, but little is known regarding this effect in meat frozen for 60 days from crossbred animals. Aims The present study sought to evaluate the carcass performance and characteristics, and the effects of freezing prior to ageing on the meat of animals from different genetic groups finished in a feedlot. Methods A total of 26 male cattle were used, consisting of Angus × Nellore (AAN), Canchim × Nellore (CAN) and Nellore (NEL), finished in feedlot. The carcasses were evaluated after slaughter. The steaks (Longissimus thoracis) were submitted to freezing for 0, 30 and 60 days before ageing, and were then aged for 1, 7 and 14 days. Key results Consumption and performance was greater for AAN and CAN animals. The AAN and CAN crossbred cattle presented higher final liveweight, hot carcass weight, dressing-out percentage and rib eye area. Freezing did not affect the meat luminosity, and it reduced the shear force and the purge at 14 days of ageing when frozen for 30 and 60 days. Conclusions The crossbreed between Canchim × Nellore animals is an alternative for termination in a feedlot. Meats frozen before ageing were more tender. Implications Crossbred animals have better carcass performance and characteristics and the pre-freezing process yielded more tender meat. The Canchim is an alternative for crossing with pure Bos indicus animals.

Context An adequate management of water use is essential in agricultural systems, including pig farming. Reducing the water footprint is important to preserve this natural resource, although there is limited qualitative information about water intake and water intake behaviour, especially in immunocastrated pigs. Aim The objective of this study was to compare water disappearance, and estimate wasted water and water intake behaviour for immunocastrated and surgically castrated male pigs. Methods Twenty-four surgically castrated male pigs and 24 entire male pigs submitted to immunocastration were used, with an average initial weight of 29.3 kg (±1.9 kg) and an age of 75 days. The pigs were housed in a growing–finishing facility with 24 pens and two animals per pen; each pen was equipped with a semi-automatic feeder and a bite-ball drinker with a water meter. The disappearance of water was measured by collecting the values of the water meters on a daily basis, and the water intake behaviour was determined by collecting the values of the water meters per hour. Water input and output values were estimated, and wasted water was calculated by subtracting the input from the output value. Key results The weekly average water disappearance for surgically castrated males was higher (P < 0.05) than that for immunocastrated males, except in the last 2 weeks of the experimental period; the same was observed when expressed based on weight. Castrated animals also wasted 21.4% more water than immunocastrated animals. Regarding the water consumption profile, there were no differences between the two groups; water consumption was higher in the afternoon. The lower water disappearance in immunocastrated pigs was due to the increase in feed intake after the second dose of the immunocastration vaccine and to the lower amounts of waste because of less aggressive behaviour. Conclusion Immunocastrated male pigs have a smaller water footprint, but a similar water intake behaviour compared with surgically castrated animals. Implications Knowledge of the profile of water intake and a way to estimate water waste allows more efficient and sustainable management of water resources in pig production systems.

Article Details: Received: 2020-07-07 | Accepted: 2020-11-05 | Available online: 2021-03-31 https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.01.60-63 This article reviews the advantages and disadvantages of various alternatives to the surgical castration of piglets. Producers use castrations against boar taint which is present in the meat. Alternative methods could be immunocastration, production with entire male pigs or castration with anesthesia and/or analgesia. Production with entire male pigs means to feed pigs to lower carcasses, as the boar taint is very low at that time. But this method is not suitable for all especially If pigs need to be fattened up to 180-200 kg. Castration with anesthesia and analgesia reduces pain and is suitable for welfare but the cost of anesthesia and analgesia is high for some producers. The expense of immunocastration is also higher than for entire pigs but advantages of this method are higher meat percentage, better carcass quality, improved feed conversion ratio. Keywords: castration, immunocastration, boar taint, entire male pigs, castration with anesthesia or analgesia References Adam, J.L. (1977). Boar odour in entire males after slaughter. Agricultural Research in the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Annual Report of the Research Division, 1976–1977. Giffin, B. J., Allison, J. R., Martin, S., Ward, P. and Tschopp, A. (2008). Consumer acceptance of the use of vaccination to control boar taint. Proceedings 20th Int Pig Vet Soc Cong, Durban, South Africa. Aluwe, M., Langendries, K. C. M., Bekaert, K. M., Tuyttens, F. A. M., De Brabander, D. L., De Smet, S. and Millet, S. (2013). Effect of surgical castration, immunocastration and chicory-diet on the meat quality and palatability of boars. Meat Science, 94(3), 402–407. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.02.015 Aluwe, M., Tuyttens, F. A. M. and Millet, S. (2015). Field experience with surgical castration with anaesthesia, analgesia, immunocastration and production of entire male pigs: performance, carcass traits and boar taint prevalence. Animal: an international journal of animal bioscience, 9(3), 500. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s1751731114002894 Aluwe, M., Vanhonacker, F., Millet, S. and Tuyttens, A. M. (2015). Influence of hands-on experience on pig farmers‘ attitude towards alternatives for surgical castration of male piglets. Research in Veterinary Science, 103, 80–86. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2015.09.019 Batorek, N., Candek-Potokar, M., Bonneau, M. and Van Milgen, J. (2012). Meta-analysis of the effect of immunocastration on production performance, reproductive organs and boar taint compounds in pigs. Animal: an international journal of animal bioscience, 6(8), 1330. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s1751731112000146 Bee, G., Chevillon, P. and Bonneau, M. (2015). Entire male pig production in Europe. Animal Production Science, 55(12), 1347–1359. doi: https://doi.org/10.1071/an15279 Bohrer, B. M., Flowers, W. L., Kyle, J. M., Johnson, S. S., King, V. L., Spruill, J. L. and Boler, D. D. (2014). Effect of gonadotropin releasing factor suppression with an immunological on growth performance, estrus activity, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of market gilts. Journal of animal science, 92(10), 4719–4724. doi: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-7756 Brunius, C., Zamaratskaia, G., Andersson, K., Chen, G., Norrby, M., Madej, A. and Lundstrom, K. (2011). Early immunocastration of male pigs with Improvac® – Effect on boar taint, hormones and reproductive organs. Vaccine, 29(51), 9514–9520. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.10.014 Candek-Potokar, M., Skrlep, M. and Zamaratskaia, G. (2017). Immunocastration as alternative to surgical castration in pigs. Theriogenology, 6, 109–126. doi: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.68650 D’Souza, D. N. and Mullan, B. P. (2003). The effect of genotype and castration method on the eating quality characteristics of pork from male pigs. Animal Science, 77(1), 67–72. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s1357729800053650 Dostalova, A., Koucký, M. and Průsova, V. (2008). Výkrm kanecků v podminkach ekologickeho zemědělstvi. Mudrik, Z., Dvorak, J. Metodika zemědělskeho poradenskeho systemu. Dunshea, F. R., Colantoni, C., Howard, K., McCauley, I., Jackson, P., Long, K. A. and Hennessy, D. P. (2001). Vaccination of boars with a GnRH vaccine (Improvac) eliminates boar taint and increases growth performance. Journal of animal science, 79(10), 2524–2535. doi: https://doi.org/10.2527/2001.79102524x Fredriksen, B., Johnsen, A. M. S. and Skuterud, E. (2011). Consumer attitudes towards castration of piglets and alternatives to surgical castration. Research in veterinary science, 90(2), 352–357. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.06.018 Hennessy, D. and Newbold, R. (2004). Consumer attitudes to a boar taint vaccine, Improvac (R)–A qualitative study. In Proceedings of the 18th IPVS congress, Hamburg, Germany, 612 p. Holinger, M., Fruh, B. and Hillmann, E. (2015). Group composition for fattening entire male pigs under enriched housing conditions – Influences on behaviour, injuries and boar taint compounds. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 165, 47–56. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.01.016 Holinger, M., Fruh, B., Stoll, P., Graage, R., Wirth, S., Bruckmaier, R. and Hillmann, E. (2018). Chronic intermittent stress exposure and access to grass silage interact differently in their effect on behaviour, gastric health and stress physiology of entire or castrated male growing-finishing pigs. Physiology & behavior, 195, 58–68. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.07.01 Huber-Eicher, B. and Spring, P. (2008). Attitudes of Swiss consumers towards meat from entire or immunocastrated boars: A representative survey. Research in veterinary science, 85(3), 625–627. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.03.002 Viske, D., Lagerkvist, C. J. and Carlsson, F. (2006). Swedish consumer preferences for animal welfare and biotech: a choice experiment. AgBioForum 9(1), 51–58. Mellor, D. J. and Stafford, K. J. (2004). Animal welfare implications of neonatal mortality and morbidity in farm animals. The veterinary journal, 168(2), 118–133. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2003.08.004 Mellor, D. J. and Gregory, N. G. (2003). Responsiveness, behavioural arousal and awareness in fetal and newborn lambs: experimental, practical and therapeutic implications. New Zealand veterinary journal, 51(1), 2–13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2003.36323 Moberg, G. P. (2000). Biological response to stress: implications for animal welfare. The biology of animal stress: basic principles and implications for animal welfare, 1, 21. doi: https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851993591.0001 Needham, T. and Hoffman, L. C. (2015). Physical meat quality and chemical composition of the Longissimus thoracis of entire and immunocastrated pigs fed varying dietary protein levels with and without ractopamine hydrochloride. Meat science, 110, 101–108. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.06.01 Nemethova, S. (2018). Vplyv trieslovin na kvalitu a nutricne zloženie masa kancekov. Nitra: SPU. Prunier, A., Bonneau, M., Von Borell, E. H., Cinotti, S., Gunn, M., Fredriksen, B. and Velarde, A. (2006). A review of the welfare consequences of surgical castration in piglets and the evaluation of non-surgical methods. Animal Welfare Journal, Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, 15, 277–289. Seiquer, I., Palma-Granados, P., Haro, A., Lara, L., Lachica, M., Fernandez-Figares, I. and Nieto, R. (2019). Meat quality traits in longissimus lumborum and gluteus medius muscles from immunocastrated and surgically castrated Iberian pigs. Meat science, 150, 77–84. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.12.004 Telles, F. G., Luna, S. P. L., Teixeira, G. and Berto, D. A. (2016). Long-term weight gain and economic impact in pigs castrated under local anaesthesia. Veterinary and Animal Science, 1, 36–39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2016.11.003 Tuyttens, F. A., Vanhonacker, F., Langendries, K., Aluwe, M., Millet, S., Bekaert, K. and Verbeke, W. (2011). Effect of information provisioning on attitude toward surgical castration of male piglets and alternative strategies for avoiding boar taint. Research in Veterinary Science, 91(2), 327–332. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.01.005 Tuyttens, F. A., Vanhonacker, F., Verhille, B., De Brabander, D. and Verbeke, W. (2012). Pig producer attitude towards surgical castration of piglets without anaesthesia versus alternative strategies. Research in Veterinary Science, 92(3), 524– 530. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.02.017 Von Borell, E., Baumgartner, J., Giersing, M., Jaggin, N., Prunier, A., Tuyttens, F. A. M. and Edwards, S. A. (2009). Animal welfare implications of surgical castration and its alternatives in pigs. Animal, 3(11), 1488–1496. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s1751731109004728

Background: The behaviour of the adult entire male horse is often undesirable and the vastly eased management of the more biddable gelding means that clients often request castration of their horses. It can be an intimidating procedure due to the potential serious complications and the associated health and safety considerations. A good solid approach to the clinical aspects of castration and its complications helps provide the practitioner with confidence to undertake this surgery. Owners perceive this as a routine procedure, but their frequent requirement for the surgery to be conducted at their premises with only their assistance renders this an operation that demands careful discussion and thereby informed consent. Aim of the article: This article provides a guide to performing castrations in horses and discusses the common complications and their management.

In organic pig husbandry, the use of roughage is mandatory as dietary supplement. This study investigated the effects of oat silage on the fatty acid composition, in entire males and gilts, as well as indole and skatole levels in perirenal adipose tissue of entire males. Entire males and gilts (forty-five to forty-eight pigs/sex) were assigned to two dietary roughage feeds (control with straw vs. oat silage). There was no significant effect of silage or sex on total SFA and MUFA in pork fat. However, the oat silage increased the total PUFA n-3 and decreased the PUFA n-6/n-3 ratio. The content of boar taint compounds (skatole and indole) in the entire male pigs did not differ between diets, although human nose scoring rejected in a greater extent more pork fat from entire males supplemented with oat silage, compared with those only supplied with straw. Approximately 50% of the entire males (90 to 97 kg of carcass) had low skatole values (≤0.1 μg/g), that were below the range of boar taint detection, regardless of the feeding regime. This finding indicates that more studies should be performed to avoid the problem of taint detection in entire males under organic production.

Javan rusa (Cervus timorensis russa) stags are usually slaughtered after the age of fifteen months, when animal handling problems and decline in carcase quality may occur. In three trials the effects of castration and age on carcase and meat quality were investigated. Nineteen entire and sixteen castrated male Javan rusa deer were raised on pasture, and slaughtered at the age of 13, 19 or 25 months. Live weight gain was recorded monthly and backfat (ultrasound) every two months. At slaughter, carcasses were electrically stimulated and body components were estimated. After chiller assessments, carcasses were jointed, and separated into muscle, fat and bone. M longissimus dorsi (LD), m. biceps femoris (BF), m. semimembranosus (SM), m. semitendinosus (ST) and m. psoas major (PM) were evaluated for pHu, colour, cooking loss, Wamer-Bratzler shear force, sensory properties and muscle fibre types. Muscles and soft tissues of joints were analyzed for moisture, fat, ash, protein and cholesterol. The nature and amounts of fatty acids (FA) in LD, fat depots and duodenal content were determined. Rusa males grew rapidly in their first ten months, 67 kg in their first year (63 % of two-year live weight), but there was little growth in winter. Deposition of subcutaneous fat (SF) started after twelve months of age. Both castrates and entire male had thin subcutaneous fat (maximum 14 mm) in their second year and it varied seasonally. Live weights and carcase weights of castrates were significantly lower than those of entire males killed at 25 months (P< 0.03). Dressing percentage was high (55.2 to 64.7%) and increased with age and castration (P

Realistic two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) applications for anatomical studies are being developed from true-colored sectioned images. We generated advanced-sectioned images of the entire male body and verified that anatomical structures of both normal and abnormal shapes could be visualized in them. The cadaver was serially sectioned at constant intervals using a cryomacrotome. The sectioned surfaces were photographed using a digital camera to generate horizontal advanced-sectioned images in which normal and abnormal structures were classified. Advanced-sectioned images of the entire male body were generated. The image resolution was 3.3 × 3.3 fold better than that of the first sectioned images obtained in 2002. In the advanced-sectioned images, normal and abnormal structures ranging from microscopic (≥0.06 mm × 0.06 mm; pixel size) to macroscopic (≤473.1 mm × 202 mm; body size) could be identified. Furthermore, the real shapes and actual sites of lung cancer and lymph node enlargement were ascertained in them. Such images will be useful because of their true color and high resolution in digital 2D and 3D applications for gross anatomy and clinical anatomy. In future, we plan to generate new advanced-sectioned images of abnormal cadavers with different diseases for clinical anatomy studies.

In the Ottoman Empire, records named tahrir were kept, in order to identify the economic and human resources of the state since early periods. Archives and libraries in Turkey has encountered a large number of census registers. One of the register species is population books that coded "NFS.d." Entire male population residing in settlements given in the population books were recorded information of the name, occupation, father's name, father's occupation, gender, age, disability, military status, and migration movements. Population book of Burdur Kaza that coded " NFS.d." 3248 is the main source of the study. The article is a historical geography study prepared by analysing the demographic data belonging to the city of Burdur from the population book of Burdur Kaza dated 1834 with the principles of population geography. The purpose of the article is to shed light on the population of Burdur city in 1834 by processing historical information and documents using modern methods. Districts in the Burdur Kaza under the Hamid Sanjak, under the Konya State, were the city of Burdur. In this period, the city consists of 19 districts, 17 of which belong to Muslims and 2 to non-Muslims. The total population of the city was 5,765 people. In the article, the distribution of the male population in the city by district, religious-ethnic structure, distribution by age groups, births and deaths in the city and the educational status of the population were examined. In addition, migrations taking place in and out of the city were also evaluated.

Entire male (EM) pigs (152; ∼30 kg body weight) were used to examine immunocastration using Improvest and feeding ractopamine on growth performance, carcass and meat quality, and fatty acid composition. Timing for administering second dose of Improvest compared dosing at 4 and 8 wk pre-slaughter. A factorial arrangement evaluated two genotypes [Large Whites and Duroc crossbreds (Durocs)] by five management regimens (EM fed control diet, EM fed ractopamine, second dose Improvest 4 wk pre-slaughter, second dose Improvest 8 wk pre-slaughter, second dose Improvest 4 wk pre-slaughter plus ractopamine). Average daily gain and gain to feed (G:F) were generally greater (P ≤ 0.01) in Durocs. Immunocastration increased (P

A new species of nine-spined stickleback, Pungitius modestus, is described based on the holotype and 17 paratypes (38.7–51.7 mm standard length) collected from the inland area of Yamagata Prefecture, northern Honshu, Japan. The new species is distinguished from the other species of Pungitius by the following combination of characters: 30–32 small unconnected lateral plates; dorsal-fin rays VIII–X (usually IX)+9–11; anal-fin rays 7–10 (usually 8); pectoral-fin rays 10; a short spiny dorsal fin base (26.5%–29.8% SL); the first spiny dorsal fin spine behind the pectoral-fin base; a long pre-anal fin (59.9%–67.4% SL); the anal-fin spine below the 1st–3rd dorsal-fin rays; a short pelvic-fin spine (6.3%–9.1% SL); a short anal-fin spine (4.1%–6.0% SL); a long caudal peduncle (14.3%–19.7% SL); no body markings; membranes of the dorsal-fin spines dark brown with black pigments; the entire male body, and soft dorsal and anal fins, becoming black in the breeding season; the anteroventral process of the ectocoracoid present; and the dorsal extension of the ascending process of the pelvis level with the dorsal-most actinost.

Simple Summary Successful breeding of entire male pigs needs a better understanding of factors driving meat quality and behavior traits as entire male pigs have lower meat quality, including an occasional strong defect known as boar taint, and more aggressive and sexual behavior. The review provides an update on how genetic factors affecting boar taint compounds and aggressive behavior in male pigs with emphasis on application in selection. Abstract Giving up surgical castration is desirable to avoid pain during surgery but breeding entire males raises issues on meat quality, particularly on boar taint, and aggression. It has been known for decades that boar taint is directly related to sexual development in uncastrated male pigs. The proportion of tainted carcasses depends on many factors, including genetics. The selection of lines with a low risk of developing boar taint should be considered as the most desirable solution in the medium to long term. It has been evidenced that selection against boar taint is feasible, and has been set up in a balanced way in some pig populations to counterbalance potential unfavorable effects on reproductive performances. Selection against aggressive behaviors, though theoretically feasible, faces phenotyping challenges that compromise selection in practice. In the near future, new developments in modelization, automatic recording, and genomic data will help define breeding objectives to solve entire male meat quality and welfare issues.

International audience; This work considers all factors along the production chain from farm to fork influencing the quality of fresh pork and processed products. Pork quality is multidimensional and comprises various attributes: commercial value of carcasses, meat organoleptic, nutritional, technological (i.e. suitability for processing and storage) properties, convenience, and societal image. The latter denotes cultural, ethical (including animal welfare) and environmental dimensions related to pork production, including geographical origin, all of which influence societal perceptions for pork. This review covers the impact of production factors, slaughter methods, carcass processing, and post mortem ageing on fresh meat quality. The impact on pork quality from some of these factors are now well documented and clearly established (e.g. genetics and pork technological attributes; diet and lipid profile; preslaughter and slaughter conditions and pork technological or organoleptic attributes.. .). Gaps in scientific knowledge are also identified, including the need for a better understanding of regulatory pathways for oxidative stress in vivo and post mortem that can contribute to optimise pork organoleptic and nutritional attributes and its suitability for processing and storage. This review highlights the strong interactions between primary production factors on pork quality attributes. Interactions are particularly marked in alternative production systems, in which synergies between factors can lead to specific quality characteristics that can be used to market pork at a premium as branded products. There are also antagonisms between quality attributes, namely between carcass commercial value and pork technological and organoleptic properties, between nutritional attributes and processing and storage suitability of fat tissues, between societal image and pork technological attributes in outdoor production systems, and between societal image (better welfare) and organoleptic attributes (risk for boar taint) in entire male production. Further research is needed to better understand the effects of some specific production factors and their interactions on quality attributes. A holistic approach with the use of multicriteria analyses can help to work out the trade-offs between pork quality attributes and between stakeholders (farmer, slaughterhouse or processing plant, consumers, citizens. . .) whose priorities may differ.

Studies in animal science assessing nutrient and energy efficiency or determining nutrient requirements necessitate gathering exact measurements of body composition or body nutrient contents. Wet chemical analysis methods or standardized dissection are commonly applied, but both are destructive. Harnessing human medical imaging techniques for animal science can enable repeated measurements of individuals over time and reduce the number of individuals required for research. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is particularly promising due to its low acquisition and operating costs, low levels of radiation emission and simple image processing. However, the measurements obtained with DXA do not perfectly match dissections or chemical analyses, requiring the adjustment of the DXA via calibration equations. In principle, DXA results should be independent of animal size and body composition, because bone mineral content and the content of fat and lean tissue are derived from the attenuation of X-rays transmitted through the body. Several calibration regressions have been published, but comparative studies are pending. Thus, it is currently not clear whether existing regression equations can be directly used to convert DXA measurements into chemical values or whether each individual DXA device will require its own calibration for the animal9s breed, age, class or sex. Our study builds prediction equations that relate body composition to the content of single nutrients in growing entire male pigs (body weight range 20-100 kg) as determined by both DXA and chemical analyses, and we present the accuracy of those predictions. Moreover, we show that the chemical composition of the empty body can be satisfactorily determined by DXA scans of carcasses. This opens up promising possibilities for the reduction of invasive procedures in the course of nutritional studies. Finally, we compare existing prediction equations for pigs of a similar range of body weights with the equations derived from our DXA measurements and evaluate their fit with our chemical analyses data. We found that existing equations for absolute contents that were built using the same DXA beam technology predicted our data more precisely than equations based on different technologies and percentages of fat and lean mass. This indicates that the creation of generic regression equations that yield reliable estimates of body composition in pigs of different growth stages, sexes and genetic breeds could be achievable in the near future. DXA may be a promising tool for high-throughput phenotyping for genetic studies, because it efficiently measures body composition in a large number and wide array of animals.

The influence of a high inclusion level of Chlorella vulgaris, individually and supplemented with two carbohydrase mixtures, in finishing pig diets was assessed on zootechnical performance, carcass characteristics, pork quality traits and nutritional value of pork fat. Forty crossbred entire male pigs, sons of Large White &times, Landrace sows crossed with Pietrain boars, with an initial live weight of 59.1 &plusmn, 5.69 kg were used in this trial. Swines were randomly assigned to one of four dietary treatments (n = 10): cereal and soybean meal-based diet (control), control diet with 5% C. vulgaris (CV), CV diet supplemented with 0.005% Rovabio&reg, Excel AP (CV + R) and CV diet supplemented with 0.01% of a four-CAZyme mixture (CV + M). Animals were slaughtered, after the finishing period, with a BW of 101 &plusmn, 1.9 kg. Growth performance, carcass characteristics and meat quality traits were not influenced (p &gt, 0.05) by the incorporation of C. vulgaris in the diets. However, the inclusion of the microalga in finishing pig diets increased some lipid-soluble antioxidant pigments and n-3 PUFA, and decreased the n-6:n-3 ratio of fatty acids, thus ameliorating the nutritional value of pork fat. Moreover, the supplementation of diets with the carbohydrase mixtures did not change (p &gt, 0.05) neither animal performance nor meat quality traits, indicating their inefficacy in the increase of digestive utilization of C. vulgaris by pigs under these experimental conditions. It is concluded that the use of C. vulgaris in finishing pig diets, at this high incorporation level, improves the nutritional value of pork fat without compromising pig performance.

The effects of live weight on carcass characteristics and meat quality of Australian Rangeland goats were determined. Fifty-two intact-male kid goats were fed Mitchell grass hay and finisher pellets ad libitum for 42 days. Prior to slaughter, kids were categorised into live weight groups: 'Heavy' (≈33.1 kg) or 'Light' ≈ 24.3 kg). Fifteen kids per group were randomly selected, slaughtered and carcass characteristics measured. The longissimus lumborum (LL) and the biceps femoris (BF) muscles were removed for quality measurements. The Heavy group had higher dressing, hindquarters, non-carcass component and offal percentages (P 0.05). Live weight had no effect on proportion of carcass cuts, muscle meat colour, cooking loss, Warner-Bratzler shear force, total fat or ash (P 0.05), but influenced the moisture and protein content in the LL and the moisture content in the BF (P 0.05). The findings suggest that live weight of entire male Rangeland goats had no effect on meat quality characteristics.

An approximately 16-year-old, 6.5-kg entire male African green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus) was evaluated for acute-onset soft-tissue swelling and disuse of the left forelimb. Orthogonal radiographs of the humerus revealed a closed, complete, short oblique fracture of the distal one-third humeral diaphysis. Open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) was performed using a plate-rod construct. Convalescence and proactive rehabilitation allowed for uneventful healing, with radiographic documentation of a bony union at the fracture site nine weeks postoperatively. Open fracture management in non-human primates is uncommonly performed, and this case revealed some of the considerations and methods critical to ORIF of humeral fractures in captive monkeys.

Simple Summary To study the effect of dietary crude protein (CP) restriction in two different pig producing types and the role of gut microbiota, 32 pure castrated male Duroc and 32 entire male hybrid (F2) piglets were raised in a three-phase feeding regime with a restriction in CP content of the diets. The average body weight of hybrid animals were higher compared to Duroc pigs. No changes were found in average daily feed intake (ADFI) of hybrid animals in comparison to Duroc pigs. Hybrid animals apparently digested more CP than Duroc and Duroc pigs emitted more CH4 and ammonia with respect to the hybrids. Dietary protein restriction did not alter emissions of contaminant gases nor microbial community structure in terms of diversity, although some genera were affected by the dietary challenge. Abstract In order to reduce dietary nitrogen and achieve an efficient protein deposition as well as decrease N wastage, we challenged the nutrient utilization efficiency of two different producing types in front of a dietary crude protein (CP) restriction and studied the role of the microbiota in such an adaptation process. Therefore, 32 pure castrated male Duroc (DU) and 32 entire male hybrid (F2) piglets were raised in a three-phase feeding regime. At each phase, two iso caloric diets differing in CP content, also known as normal protein (NP) and low protein (LP), were fed to the animals. LP diets had a fixed restriction (2%) in CP content in regards to NP ones throughout the phases of the experiment. At the end of third phase, fecal samples were collected for microbiota analysis purposes and greenhouse gases emissions, together with ammonia, were tested. No changes were found in average daily feed intake (ADFI) of animals of two producing types (Duroc vs. F2) or those consumed different experimental diets (NP vs. LP) throughout the course of study. However, at the end of each experimental phase the average body weight (BW) of hybrid animals were higher compared to Duroc pigs, whereas a reverse trend was observed for average daily gain (ADG), where Duroc pigs showed greater values with respect to hybrid ones. Despite, greater CH4 and ammonia emissions in Duroc pigs with respect to F2, no significant differences were found in contaminant gases emissions between diets. Moreover, LP diets did not alter the microbial community structure, in terms of diversity, although some genera were affected by the dietary challenge. Results suggest that the impact of reducing 2% of CP content was limited for reduction in contaminant gases emissions and highlight the hypothesis that moderate change in the dietary protein levels can be overcome by long-term adaptation of the gut microbiota. Overall, the influence of the producing type on performance and digestive microbiota composition was more pronounced than the dietary effect. However, both producing types responded differently to CP restriction. The use of fecal microbiota as biomarker for predicting feed efficiency has a great potential that should be completed with robust predictive models to achieve consistent and valid results.

This research was supported by the Catalan Industrial Doctorates Plan of the Department for Universities and Research, Ministry of Business and Knowledge of Generalitat de Catalunya (Ref: 2017 DI 046). The expected increase in boar (pig entire male) production while societal concerns for castration increase requires good estimations of their nutrient requirements. In this work, a meta-analytical approach was used to overcome the inconsistent results between studies that compared lysine requirements of boars and gilts. For this meta-analysis, data from 14 different studies analysing the effect of increasing dietary lysine on growth performance of finishing pigs, 70-100 kg average body weight, were extracted from 11 publications. Those studies represented 128 different treatments (53 for boars and 75 for gilts). Diets were reformulated based on NRC (2012) ingredient values to calculate standardized ileal digestible lysine to net energy ratio (SID Lys:NE) and daily SID Lys intake using average daily feed intake (ADFI). As expected, no evidence for differences in ADFI (P = 0.303) was observed between boars and gilts. However, boars grew faster (P < 0.001) and had higher gain to feed (G:F; P < 0.001). The divergent effect of SID Lys:NE on average daily gain (ADG) and G:F was analysed in a quadratic polynomial model showing different parameters for each sex (P < 0.001). Although performance between sexes was similar at low SID Lys:NE, differences were greater at higher SID Lys:NE. Furthermore, broken-line linear, broken-line quadratic (BLQ) and quadratic polynomial (QP) models were fitted to each sex to determine SID Lys:NE and SID Lys daily intake requirements to maximize ADG and G:F. Overall, QP models showed the best fit, and reported that to reach maximum ADG 0.88 (95% CI:[0.82-0.94]) or 1.01 (95% CI:[0.91-1.11]) g SID Lys/MJ, NE was required for gilts and boars, respectively. However, boar ADG was best fitted by BLQ using SID Lys daily intake as independent variable, with the requirement for maximum ADG at 24.2 (95% CI:[21.3-27.2]) g SID Lys/day. The three models reported wide confidence intervals for the requirements at maximum performance, and consequently those were overlapped when comparing boars and gilts. Maximum boars' productive performance when dietary lysine was not limiting was 116% of gilts, and at those levels the amount of SID Lys intake required per kg gain was similar between both sexes. Thus, because ADFI and Lys efficiency of gain was similar, the requirement differences were driven by the increased growth rate and gain to feed ratio between boars and gilts. In conclusion, the present study confirmed a greater productive response of boars compared to gilts when increasing dietary lysine.

Studies that investigate the expression of genes related to the tenderness of meat from entire and immunocastrated male pigs have not yet been performed. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between gender (entire male and immunocastrated) and the meat quality of pigs, as well as to quantify the expression of calpain-1 and the calpastatin gene. Regarding carcass measurements and meat quality, boars presented lower values of muscle depth (P = 0.028), subcutaneous fat thickness (P = 0.046), L* value (P = 0.004) and cook loss (P = 0.008) than the immunocastrated pigs. The boars presented greater calpain-1 gene expression (P = 0.006) and lower calpastatin gene expression (P = 0.003) than immunocastrated pigs. This study shows that combined with other factors the gene expression can contribute to a tender meat from boars due to their higher calpain-1 expression and lower calpastatin expression than those of immunocastrated male pigs.

In hermaphroditic species, sexual interference can drive the evolution of dichogamy, where sporophylls (reproductive parts) are separated in time. However, the separation of sporophylls can lead to pollination inaccuracy, especially in movement-assisted dichogamy, where sporophylls alter their position over time. Is pollination inaccuracy minimised by the second sporophyll taking the exact position of the first? Are the sporophylls optimally positioned and stable in their respective active phases? We address these questions inClerodendrum infortunatum, a protandrous, movement-assisted dichogamous species. We made predictions from optimality arguments, and tested these by measuring sporophyll angles over time, by experimentally manipulating flowers, and by estimating correlates of the resultant fitness, taking into account pollen export, pollination inaccuracy and the resultant total pollen delivered. Contrary to expectation, anthers do not have a fixed position in the male phase, and pollination inaccuracy is high. Further, when pollen load is highest, anthers are paradoxically not positioned at the pollen export peak. Also, pollen export and pollination accuracy peaks do not align. This seeming maladaptiveness of anther positioning nevertheless results in highest overall male fitness, measured as the total pollen delivered over the entire male phase. Instead of a simple positional exchange of sporophylls, stamens display a more complicated dynamic strategy which appears close to optimal even though naive measures of pollination inaccuracy are high. Such a strategy of maximising overall male fitness, integrating over the dynamics of stamen trajectory, could well be a general characteristic of protandrous movement-assisted dichogamy.

The optimized use of dietary nutrients and the accurate knowledge of the growth dynamics of body components is important for efficient pig production. This study aimed at evaluating the growth of carcass components and organs of Swiss Large White pigs from birth to 140 kg BW depending on the CP and amino acid (AA) supply. A total of 66 entire males (EM), 58 castrates (CA) and 66 female (FE) pigs were used. From 20 kg BW onwards, they had either ad libitum access to a control (C) or a diet (LP) with 20% lower CP, lysine, methionine + cystine, threonine and tryptophan content compared to C. The weight of organs, primal cuts and external fat were recorded in eight EM and eight FE; at 10 kg BW, on two EM, CA and FE each, and at 20 kg BW, on eight pigs from each sex. From 40 to 140 kg BW at 20 kg intervals, measurements were recorded on four pigs per sex and dietary treatment. The weight of each component was related to empty body (EB) using allometric regressions. Kidneys were heavier (P, Animal, 13 (10), ISSN:1751-7311, ISSN:1751-732X

Producing entire male pigs entails a risk of boar taint in the meat due to increased levels of the compounds skatole and androstenone in the carcass. Allowing meat from entire male pigs to be marketed and sold together with meat from castrates and female pigs increases the risk of consumers being dissatisfied due to boar tainted samples. To reduce this risk, it is necessary to set sorting limits for androstenone and skatole preventing meat from the most boar-tainted entire males from reaching the market. This paper presents a model framework in which the risk of consumer expressions of dislike is modelled as a function of the concentrations of skatole and androstenone. A bivariate log-normal model of skatole and androstenone concentrations is estimated from a representative sample of entire male pigs, and, by combining these two models, the expected risk of dislike and the number of discarded carcasses is estimated as a function of sorting limits. If the risk of dislike of meat from entire male pigs equals the risk of dislike of meat from castrates, up to 80% of the carcasses should be discarded. However, there is a huge variation in consumer response. This new analytical approach allows the industry to set appropriate sorting limits by balancing the risk of dissatisfied consumers with the proportion of discarded entire male carcasses.

Jerusalem artichoke contains inulin polysaccharide, which has prebiotic effects and influences the microbiota of the digestive tract. The addition of Jerusalem artichoke in boar diets may decrease the content of skatole and indole, which are the main constituents of boar taint, and may also negatively affect the taste and odor. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different levels of Helianthus tuberosus L. (H. tuberosus) in feed mixtures on performance, carcass composition, the levels of microbiota in faecal samples, and the concentrations of skatole and indole in adipose tissue. The study was performed with 47 crossbred entire male pigs of the Large White sire &times, (Large White dame &times, Landrace) genotype fed a basal diet with 0%, 4.1%, 8.1% or 12.2% H. tuberosus for 13 days before slaughter. Significant differences in daily weight gain and daily feed intake were found (p = 0.045), with the values being lower in the group with the highest level of H. tuberosus. In addition, increasing levels of H. tuberosus decreased the concentration of skatole in the adipose tissue (p = 0.003). The highest level of H. tuberosus decreased the level of Escherichia coli (p &le, 0.001) in the faeces. The enterococcal count increased (p = 0.029) in groups with a diet that included 4.1% and 8.1% H. tuberosus. There was also a significant correlation between the concentration of H. tuberosus and the concentration of E. coli (p &lt, 0.001, &minus, 0.64) and the skatole levels in the adipose tissue (p = 0.001, &ndash, 0.46). Moreover, there was also a positive correlation between the concentration of E. coli and the skatole levels in the adipose tissue (p = 0.023, 0.33). In conclusion, feeding pigs with H. tuberosus leads to decreased levels of skatole in the adipose tissue. According to the results of our study, a diet with 8.1% H. tuberosus is sufficient for decreasing skatole levels, which could be due to the decreased levels of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines.

Spiced edible gels and films were produced as part of a future technological strategy to improve the quality of pork from entire male by contributing to a decrease in boar taint and improving the texture of the meat. Each formulation, two types of hydrocolloids and two spice mixtures, were tested for their high masking power (mixtures 1 and 2). The thermoreversible hydrocolloids carrageenans (g-C) and agar-agar (g-A) were used in the production of the gels, and maltodextrin + sodium alginate (f-MA) and gelatin (f-G) for the films. The results showed that the films and gels edible had good physical-chemical and mechanical characteristics, providing sufficient stability to act as a vehicle to incorporate spices and condiments into entire male pork, being mixture 2 provided the highest values. While the use of hydrocolloids in the films improved the texture of the meat.

Meta-analysis was used to compare pigs immunocastrated (IC) with Improvac® versus physically castrated (PC) or entire male (EM) pigs. Performance and carcass data as most relevant for producers and packers were analyzed and the risk of boar taint was assessed by comparing the number of pigs exceeding the consumer thresholds of detection (ToD) for skatole and androstenone. A total of 78 articles fulfilled pre-defined inclusion criteria. Compared to PC pigs, IC pigs have a higher average daily gain (ADG; +32.54 g/day, P 0.0001) and more favorable feed conversion ratio (FCR; -0.234 kg/kg, P 0.0001), higher live weight and percentage lean, and lower hot carcass weight (HCW) and dressing percentage. Compared to EM pigs, IC pigs have a higher ADG (+65.04 g/day, P 0.0001), FCR (+0.075 kg/kg, P 0.0001), live weight and HCW, and a similar dressing percentage. Conventionally raised IC pigs yield more valuable meat compared to PC (+0.628 kg) and EM (+1.385 kg) pigs. Heavy IC pigs (HCW 97.7 kg) destined for the production of high-quality cured products gain approximately 0.3 kg more ham than their PC counterparts, with backfat and intramuscular fat still fulfilling the requirements for high-quality cured products. The risk of exceeding the ToD for skatole and androstenone is similar in IC and PC pigs, but significantly higher in EM pigs. Results from our meta-analyses confirm growth performance advantages of IC pigs compared with PC or EM pigs, and reveal a higher gain of valuable meat and a similar risk of boar taint as estimated for PC pigs.

One of the challenges in the production of entire male pigs is the occurrence of boar taint. We separately tested the effect of 3 management strategies to reduce boar taint on respectively 2, 3, and 6 Flemish pig farms: 1) adapted feeding strategies, 2) presence of gilts in the compartment, and 3) varying lairage duration at the slaughterhouse. A commercialized feed concept resulted in a significant reduction of olfactory boar taint prevalence when fed for 2 weeks (T2W) compared to control (T-CON) (P = 0.030). For T2W and when fed for 3 weeks (T3W), androstenone (AND) (P = 0.002 for T2W, P = 0.029 for T3W) and skatole (SKA) (P 0.001 for T2W and T3W) were significantly reduced compared to T-CON. Olfactory boar taint prevalence was significantly reduced when feeding 5% dried chicory roots (FI5%) (P = 0.032), but not for 3% dried chicory roots (FI3%) (P = 0.958). SKA concentration was significantly lower when feeding FI5% (P 0.001) and when feeding FI3% (P = 0.034). Rearing entire male pigs separately from gilts and increasing lairage duration from1 h to3 h did not significantly affect boar taint.

Smoke has often been recommended as a masking agent for boar taint. However, guidelines on how much smoke is necessary have not been established. We compared different smoking parameters in bacon (smoking times) and sausages (smoking times and use of liquid smoke). In streaky bacon from entire male pigs with skatole concentrations of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentrations of up to 5.8 μg/g in the neck fat, three smoking times were compared: 10, 30 and 60 min. Boar taint was partially, but not fully, masked. The longer the smoking time, the better the masking effect. In sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of up to 0.6 μg/g and androstenone concentration of up to 3.6 μg/g (the meat part) or 2.4 μg/g (the fat part) in the neck fat, smoking for 40 and 80 min fully masked the boar taint, whereas only a minor effect was seen after 10 and 20 min smoking. Liquid smoke (0.1%) did not mask boar taint when added to sausages from entire male pigs with an average skatole concentration of 0.36 μg/g (meat) or 0.38 μg/g (fat) and androstenone concentration of 2.3 μg/g (meat) and 2.9 μg/g (fat). To effectively mask boar taint, an intense smoked flavour is therefore necessary, and the longer the smoking time, the better. In contrast, the use of liquid smoke mixed into the product was not effective in the concentrations used in the current study.

The study was conducted to evaluate the influence of partial replacement of concentrate with dried citrus pulp (DCP) on nutrient intake, digestibility, nitrogen metabolism, growth rate and economic efficiency in lambs. Citrus pulp was sun dried and chemical evaluation was conducted. Forty entire male Lohi lambs approximately 4–5 months of age were used in a randomized complete block design. On the basis of body weight, lambs were divided into 4 groups, 10 lambs in each group. The animals were fed 30% forages and 70% concentrate. The concentrate contained DCP10%, DCP20%, DCP30% or DCP40%. The experiment continued up to 120 days. A non-significant effect was observed on nutrient intake and digestibility by various levels of DCP. Nitrogen balance was also remained unaffected among the treatments. A non-significant effect was observed on average daily gain in lambs fed varying levels of DCP. A decreasing trend in price per kg of feed was observed as the level of DCP increased in the diet. These results indicated that DCP can be used successfully up to 40% of the concentrate in the diet of lambs without any adverse effect on feed intake and growth performance.

Rearing entire male pigs, one of the alternatives for surgical castration, entails the possible occurrence of boar taint. This study aimed at the investigation of the acceptability of meat from entire male pigs in 8 different meat products (cutlets, bacon, blade loin, tenderloin, dry fermented sausage, cooked ham, dry-cured ham and minced meat) by trained assessors. Generally, the sensory evaluation of meat samples was affected the most in the androstenone (AEON) group, indicating that AEON is the most offensive boar taint compound for sensitive assessors. Differences between the meat products showed the highest potential for processing tainted meat in cold meat products, which was most likely due to the serving temperature on the one hand and production-related influences on the other. However, more insights regarding reducing and masking effects of production-related factors on boar taint are necessary.

The surgical castration of male piglets has traditionally been practised to prevent the development of boar taint in pork meat, but European rules aim to end this practice on a voluntary basis. This study represents a sensory characterization of the meat and meat products from entire male pigs. Three levels of androstenone concentration in fat were compared: low, 0–0.3 mg kg − 1 ; medium, 0.4–0.9 μg kg − 1 and high, 1–2.75 μg kg − 1 . The use of meat from entire males in meat products lowered the perception of boar taint compared with fresh meat but was insufficient to totally mask it. Androstenone levels seem to influence the intramuscular fat content and hence, on texture. The perception of boar taint in meat products depends on androstenone concentration as well as on the characteristics of the product. It is necessary to develop additional strategies to totally mask androstenone perception in meat and meat products.

Detection of cortisol is one of the most widely used methods to assess stress in animals because it provides information about hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. The most common biological samples are plasma, saliva, urine, feces, milk, and hair. Hair cortisol analysis could be a good noninvasive procedure to detect chronic stress because cortisol is incorporated and stored inside growing hair. The aim of this study was to determine whether cortisol could be detected in pig hair and could serve as a proper chronic stress indicator. Hair samples from 2 regions (craniodorsal [D] and dorsolumbar [L]) of 20 crossbred entire male pigs were taken at 8 and 22 weeks of age. The pigs were subjected to a weekly remixing procedure. The mean cortisol level for the hair samples was 19.30 ± 0.63 pg/mg (range, 6.4-43.88). Hair for second sampled day had higher cortisol values ( P = 0.002) than hair from first sampled day. Furthermore, L region had higher values than D region at every age measurement ( P P = 0.019) and region L (r = 0.523; P P P

Thirty entire male Iberian (IB) pigs of 12 kg initial BW were used to study the effects of dietary protein-to-energy ratio on performance, body protein accretion, and tissue composition. Two nutritional regimes were supplied at 3 stages of growth (Phase I, from 12 to 30 kg BW; Phase II, from 30 to 45 kg BW; and Phase III, from 45 to 100 kg BW): the first regime (RefP/E) was formulated to provide optimum protein-to-energy ratios for castrated IB pigs at several stages of growth from 10 to 100 kg BW; the second (IncP/E), for which an overall increase of 2.5 g digestible protein/MJ ME was provided, would allow an increased potential for lean tissue growth presumably well above that expected for the entire male of an obese pig breed. The pigs were surgically castrated at 45 kg BW and slaughtered at about 100 kg BW. In Phases I and II, in which feed was provided ad libitum, no significant differences between dietary treatments in ADG (580 ± 10 and 740 ± 11 g, on average, respectively), G:F (0.475 ± 0.004 and 0.362 ± 0.005, on average, respectively), and gain:ME intake ratio (37.8 ± 0.4 and 26.1 ± 0.4 g/MJ, on average, respectively) were found ( > 0.05). After surgical castration, for the entire fattening period (Phase III), ADFI was fixed and highly restricted. A lower gain:ME intake ratio (14.0 vs. 15.1 g/MJ; 0.05). In contrast, in the fattening stage, similar daily rates of N retention ( > 0.05) were found, in spite of the observed differences in digestible N intake ( < 0.001). We concluded that the protein (lysine) requirements of the IB boar growing from 12 to 30 kg BW and from 30 to 45 kg BW are met with the supply of 11.5 and 10.2 g digestible protein of ideal AA pattern/MJ ME (0.80 and 0.71 g digestible lysine/MJ ME), respectively. As surgical castration is programmed to be abandoned in European Union by 1 January 2018, this information will be important for the efficient production of the immunologically castrated IB pig, at the earlier stages of growth.

There is no generally accepted optimal feed form and delivery method for feeding finisher pigs. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of feed form (meal and pellet) and delivery method (liquid, dry, and wet/dry) on feed microbiology and growth, gain-to-feed ratio (G:F), and carcass quality of finisher pigs. Two batches of pigs were used, each with six pen replicates per treatment. In each batch 216 pigs (32.7 kg; ± 0.48 SE) housed in same-sex (entire male or female) pens of six pigs per pen were on treatment for ~62 d prior to slaughter. The experiment was a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement with two factors for diet form (meal and pellets) and three factors for feed delivery (dry, wet/dry, liquid). The treatments were 1) meal from dry feeder, 2) meal from wet/dry feeder, 3) meal from liquid system, 4) pellet from dry feeder, 5) pellet from wet/dry feeder, and 6) pellet from liquid system. Pig growth performance was determined, blood samples collected at slaughter for hematological analysis and microbiological and proximate analysis of feed performed. A significant feed form × delivery interaction was found for G:F. During the overall period G:F was 0.446, 0.433, 0.423, 0.474, 0.459, and 0.418 g/g (SE = 0.0080; P < 0.01) for treatments 1 through 6, respectively. When feed was pelleted, G:F was improved when feed delivery was dry or wet/dry compared to meal but when the delivery was liquid, pelleting did not affect G:F. There were no interactive effects for overall average daily gain (ADG). Overall ADG was 1,114 and 1,156 g/d (SE = 16.9; P < 0.01) for pigs fed diets in meal and pellet form, respectively and 1,080, 1,114, and 1,210 g/d (SE = 18.4; P < 0.001) for dry-, wet/dry-, and liquid-fed pigs, respectively. Carcass weight was 76.6 and 79.0 kg (SE = 0.55; P < 0.001) for pigs fed in meal and pellet form, respectively, while it was 74.7, 77.3, and 81.5 kg (SE = 0.60; P < 0.001) for pigs delivered dry, wet/dry, and liquid diets, respectively. Lactic acid bacteria (P < 0.05) and yeast (P < 0.01) counts in troughs were greater for the liquid than the dry diet in both meal and pelleted form. There was also evidence of lysine degradation in the liquid diet but this did not impact pig growth. Feeding the diet in pelleted vs. meal form led to lower hemoglobin and greater white blood cell and neutrophil counts (P < 0.05). To conclude, wet/dry feeding of a pelleted diet is recommended to maximize growth rate while optimizing G:F in grow-finisher pigs.

Simple Summary Raising entire male pigs and immunocastrates poses various challenges on how the nutrient requirements of these growth-efficient animals can be met. Applying the appropriate nutritional strategy will markedly affect the production efficiency and the carcass and pork quality, but will also control the incidence of boar-tainted carcasses. Abstract This paper reviews the current knowledge on the nutritional requirements of entire male and immunocastrated pigs to obtain an efficient growth, low boar taint level, and good carcass and meat quality. We present the reasons for offering entire males ad libitum access to the diets in order to optimize their protein deposition potential. Boar taint is one of the major issues in the production of entire males; therefore, the impact of various skatole- and indole-reducing feed ingredients is discussed regarding their efficiency and the possible mechanism affecting skatole and indole production in the hindgut. Entire males have lean carcasses, so their intramuscular fat content can be lower than that of surgical castrates or females and the adipose tissue can be highly unsaturated. The possible nutritional strategies to counteract these effects are summarized. We conclude that immunocastrates can be fed similarly to entire males until the second vaccination. However, due to the metabolic changes occurring shortly after the second vaccination, the requirements for essential amino acids are markedly lower in immunocastrates than in entire males.

Simple Summary Introducing alternatives to surgical castration of pigs bring welfare and economical benefits, but also reveal several quality-related issues. Most important is the presence of boar taint, but also includes low quantity and quality of fat, meat texture and color deviations in addition to inferior water binding properties, most of them negatively influencing meat product characteristics. The present paper highlights the important differences between the conventionally used surgical castrates and the most likely introduced alternatives: entire males and immunocastrates. Based on the review of the available research, the possible reasons for quality alterations are elaborated according to the type of meat product and recommendations for improving product quality or preventing boar taint perception are given. Abstract Due to the strong public initiative in Europe and increased regulator focus to mitigate pain, surgical castration of pigs is being gradually abandoned, while the importance of other sex categories like entire males (EM) and immunocastrates (IC) increases. Although beneficial for animal welfare and economics, their use also brings forward several quality problems. Besides the occurrence of boar taint in EM, these include excessive carcass leanness, softer fat, meat color and pH deviations, inferior water holding capacity and increased meat toughness. In this paper, the raw material differences between the male sex categories and their influence on product quality are reviewed, and possible solutions are presented. Using EM for dried or thermally processed products may result in lower processing yields and inferior sensory quality, which may partially be prevented by applying specific processing adaptations. Immunocastration is a viable solution, especially when prolonging the vaccination to slaughter interval. Low to medium levels of boar taint can be effectively managed in most of the meat products, applying procedures like cooking, microbial inoculation or masking (by spices and especially smoking), while highly tainted material can be valorized only by combining various methods and/or with dilution of the tainted meat.

Alternative solutions to the surgical castration of piglets need to be assessed because this is a particularly sensitive issue for the processing of traditional pork products. Currently, the available information about the advantages and drawbacks of castration for dry-cured products is limited, thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of Slovenian dry-cured ham (Kra&scaron, ki pr&scaron, ut) from entire males (EM), immunocastrates (IC) and surgical castrates (SC). Hams (12 per sex group) were processed for one year and physical-chemical, rheological and sensory analysis of the dry-cured hams was performed. With regard to processing aptitude, the main difference was in the subcutaneous fat thickness, which influenced the level of dehydration and salt intake. This was further reflected in the physical-chemical traits and the texture, which were measured instrumentally or assessed by panelists. Regarding the aforementioned traits, EM and IC were generally similar and different from SC. On the contrary, sensory profiling of odor, taste and flavor demonstrated that EM had the lowest overall sensory quality, different from both IC and SC, and presented odors and flavors described as sweat, manure, sharp and persistent. We confirmed that dry-curing did not eliminate the perception of boar taint in the product from EM. The IC were similar in many aspects to EM except for the odor, taste and flavor of dry-cured hams, in which case they were more similar to SC.

The optimum proportion of water for preparing liquid feed to maximize growth and optimize feed efficiency (FE) in growing-finishing pigs is not known. The aim of the current study was, using an automatic short-trough sensor liquid feeding system, to identify the water-to-feed ratio at which growth was maximized and feed was most efficiently converted to live-weight. Two experiments were conducted in which four commercially used water-to-feed ratios were fed: 2.4:1, 3.0:1, 3.5:1, and 4.1:1 on a dry matter (DM) basis (the equivalent of 2:1, 2.5:1, 3.0:1, and 3.5:1 on a fresh matter basis). Each experiment comprised 216 pigs, penned in groups of 6 same sex (entire male and female) pigs/pen with a total of 9 pen replicates per treatment. The first experiment lasted 62 days (from 40.6 to 102.2 kg at slaughter) and the second experiment was for 76 days (from 31.8 to 119.6 kg at slaughter). Overall, in Exp. 1, FE was 0.421, 0.420, 0.453, and 0.448 (s.e. 0.0081 g/g; P < 0.01) for pigs fed at 2.4:1, 3.0:1, 3.5:1, and 4.1:1, respectively. Overall, in Exp. 2, average daily gain was 1,233, 1,206, 1,211, and 1,177 (s.e. 12.7 g/day; P < 0.05) for pigs fed at 2.4:1, 3.0:1, 3.5:1, and 4.1:1, respectively. At slaughter, in Exp. 1, dressing percentage was 76.7, 76.6, 76.7, and 75.8 (s.e. 0.17%; P < 0.01) for 2.4:1, 3.0:1, 3.5:1, and 4.1:1, respectively. There were no differences between treatment groups for DM, organic matter, nitrogen, gross energy, or ash digestibilities. These findings indicate that liquid feeding a diet prepared at a water-to-feed ratio of 3.5:1 maximizes FE of growing-finishing pigs without negatively affecting dressing percentage. Therefore, preparing liquid feed for growing-finishing pigs at a water-to-feed ratio of 3.5:1 DM is our recommendation for a short-trough liquid feeding system.

This work presents the use of low-power microwave sensors for the detection of two boar taint compounds, skatole and androstenone. These compounds are associated with malodour from entire male pigs, which has been a long-running challenge for the meat industry. A resonant cavity-based sensor is used to demonstrate selectivity, and limits of detection for skatole and androstenone at 7.1 and 41.4 ppm respectively, where both compounds were dissolved individually in ethanol and acetonitrile. The work is considered a step toward using this technique for on- or at-line monitoring of malodour compounds, particularly at the abattoir. The limitations of the method are discussed, in addition to ways it could be improved to provide limits of detection closer to those associated with consumer acceptability.