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Household carbon dioxide emissions depend on the household's attributes and location. Wealthier suburbanites drive more and consume more energy at home. In recent years, affluent individuals have been more likely to purchase electric vehicles and install solar panels. Using several datasets from California, we observe that these shifts in consumer behavior have flattened household Carbon Emissions Engel Curves in the transportation sector and the electricity sector. Based on voting data from a 2018 proposition to repeal a fuel tax in California, we document that communities tend to support higher fuel taxes when their vehicle fleet is more fuel‐efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We improve upon the Pissarides-Weber method for estimating tax evasion among the self-employed by utilizing unique register-based consumption measures from the Swedish and Finnish mandatory registers for pleasure boats. This allows for more detailed and statistically powered analyses than survey-based applications. Our results indicate overall levels of hidden incomes that are in line with previous studies. However, the functional form analysis shows that the estimated sizes of underreporting in absolute monetary amounts are almost constant over reported income levels, whereas previous studies have assumed that the underreporting is proportional to income. The results from the preference analysis—in which we compare households that will become self-employed in the near future with households that will remain wage earners—are mixed; the two types of households have insignificant (Finland) or economically small (Sweden) preference differences. However, when we use engine power as a price proxy, the preference differences are larger in both countries. Plain English Summary: Consumption of pleasure boats reveal tax evasion by the self-employed. We find that self-employed households are substantially more likely to own a pleasure boat than employee households, holding income constant, indicating income underreporting. Households that become self-employed in the near future, however, are only marginally more likely to own a boat. This suggests that differences in boat ownership are not mainly due to preference differences. We also find that underreporting is relatively constant in absolute monetary terms over the reported income distribution. Policy implications from this are (a) that the case for subsidizing entrepreneurship using public funds is weakened, as we can be more confident that actual self-employment income is higher than reported income and (b) that the income of self-employed with low household incomes may be considerably higher than reported, meaning that that the actual income distribution is less unequal compared to the reported income distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption inequality is a matter of great concern. However, measurement error always appears when doing so. To handle this, this paper uses a method based on Engel expenditure elasticity proposed by Aguiar and Bils. The results show that consumption inequality in rural China based on Engel expenditure elasticity is smaller than the income inequality and consumption inequality calculated by the ratio of high-income to low-income households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do richer countries spend a higher share of their income on social protection than poor countries? A newly assembled dataset on social protection spending for 142 countries since 1995 allows an exploration of alternate hypotheses, treating the pandemic period separately, as it entailed a large expansion in social protection efforts. While the mean income share devoted to social protection rises with income, this is attributable to multiple confounders, including relative prices, weak governance in low-income countries, and access to information-communication technologies. Controlling for these, social protection spending is similar between rich and poor countries. This was also true during the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates the Tobit and IV Tobit models using data from the Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS) 2019/20 to analyse factors that influence household education spending, and examine the impact of different income groups on education spending in Uganda. The findings show a positive relationship between household income on the one hand; and the level of education of the head of household, household size, urban residence, female-headed household and education spending on the other. Furthermore, higher-income households are found to have a high-income elasticity of demand than low-income households. An increase in total household income for high-income quintile households is found to increase educational expenditures by a percentage point than for low-income quintile households. Due to this disparity, the government is advised to revise its cost-sharing approach to public education spending, which needs to be supplemented by household education spending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is first to model energy poverty in Chinese households using an Engel curve approach. To analyse the determinants of energy poverty and energy expenditures across households, we avail the 2015 wave of the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS). Possible presence of endogeneity is accounted for in the model specification as well as by using the Lewbel heteroscedasticity identified endogenous variables estimator. In addition, we are the first to scrutinise disparity and discrimination by conducting the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition of energy poverty model by gender, ethnicity, region (Eastern vs. non‐Eastern provinces), and urbanisation status (rural vs. urban residents). Our analysis shows: (i) education is the key determinant of various energy poverty measures and energy expenditure shares across Chinese households; (ii) other determinants including fossil fuel mix and electricity price discrimination are found to worsen energy poverty, on average. However, fossil fuel mix is found to increase expenditure share of total energy, electricity, and coal and decrease that of biomass; and (iii) the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition analyses show no statistically significant gender or ethnic discrimination in energy poverty rates. However, there is substantial divide between Eastern and non‐Eastern provinces and between rural and urban households—with these groups also discriminated against when accessing clean cooking fuels and technologies. The Blinder–Oaxaca results also generally support the logistic and the Lewbel energy poverty model findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investment disparity in the education of persons with disabilities may be larger on the part of parents, in part resulting from predicted lower returns to the investment due to mistaken beliefs about their capabilities, or actual lower returns due to barriers in the labor market. Using a nationally representative dataset from Bangladesh and utilizing the framework of the Engel curve, we investigate intrahousehold investment decisions in education between children with and without disabilities. The results of the hurdle model show the existence of disability bias in enrollment decisions, whereas individual-level analysis suggests that bias exists on educational expenditure after children with disabilities enroll in school. Additionally, though we observe a lower level of bargaining power among household heads on educational investments for their children with disabilities, interaction effects suggest the importance of greater income stability and maternal education status being instrumental to improving the education of persons with disabilities.

Keywords: energy poverty; energy burden; household energy expenditure; logistic regression; Engel curve; pauvreté énergétique; poids financier de l'énergie; dépenses énergétiques des ménages; régression logistique; courbe d'Engel EN energy poverty energy burden household energy expenditure logistic regression Engel curve FR pauvreté énergétique poids financier de l'énergie dépenses énergétiques des ménages régression logistique courbe d'Engel 416 433 18 09/12/22 20220901 NES 220901 Introduction Energy poverty continues to grow in recognition and prevalence (Belaïd 2018); millions of people live in energy poverty, including in industrialized nations (Bouzarovski et al. 2012; Day et al. 2016). [Extracted from the article]

Tobacco consumption is growing day by day everywhere in the world in countless forms such as supari, tobacco raw, chew, pan, cigarettes, bidi and naswar etc. Tobacco consumption may avert the limited family resources far away from advantageous uses between low-slung income households. The relatively underprivileged households frequently allocate an ample share of the domestic budget on tobacco expenditures. These uneconomical expenditures on tobacco could be a diversion of household monetary resources from necessary things, such as foodstuff, healthcare and education. Explicitly this paper discovers the crowding-out impact of tobacco expenditures on a household's education and health payouts. The facts for this study has been engaged from HIES (Household Integrated Economic Survey) conducted regularly by PBS (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics) that offers evidence at household level and covered the whole nation. The estimation has been carried out by employing the Engel Curves, the quadratic terms using QUAIDS (Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System) were found to be empirically important in describing household budget behavior. By employing data on outlays, study evaluated a user demand structure that comprises numerous main spending classifications (tobacco, education and healthcare). OLS (Ordinary Least Square) was used to estimate the effect of tobacco outlay and other covariates on share of education and health in the total budget of a household. The results found out were just alike John (2006) that a rise in the tobacco expenditure brings a reduction in the budget quota dedicated to health and education. The quantitative results aim to help the policy makers to formulate and apply such policies to restrict the consumption of tobacco products and diverting those expenses for the formation of human capital by increased spending on health and education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microdata are required to evaluate the distributive impact of the taxation system as a whole (direct and indirect taxes) on individuals or households. However, in European Union countries this information is usually distributed into two separate surveys: the Household Budget Surveys (HBS), including total household expenditure and its composition, and EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), including detailed information about households' income and direct (but not indirect) taxes paid. We present a parametric statistical matching procedure to merge both surveys. For the first stage of matching, we propose estimating total household expenditure in HBS (Engel curves) using a GLM estimator, instead of the traditionally used OLS method. It is a better alternative, insofar as it can deal with the heteroskedasticity problem of the OLS estimates, while making it unnecessary to retransform the regressors estimated in logarithms. To evaluate these advantages of the GLM estimator, we conducted a computational Monte Carlo simulation. In addition, when an error term is added to the deterministic imputation of expenditure in the EU-SILC, we propose replacing the usual Normal distribution of the error with a Chi-square type, which allows a better approximation to the original expenditures variance in the HBS. An empirical analysis is provided using Spanish surveys for years 2012–2016. In addition, we extend the empirical analysis to the rest of the European Union countries, using the surveys provided by Eurostat (EU-SILC, 2011; HBS, 2010). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In the present paper, an investigation into Thailand’s energy demand is performed to determine if: (1) a linear or nonlinear Engel curve better explains the relationship between income and energy consumption, and (2) systems with pre-commitments better model energy consumptions. Four demand systems are estimated: an almost ideal demand system (AIDS), the quadratic almost ideal demand system (QAIDS), generalized almost ideal demand system (GAIDS), and the generalized quadratic almost ideal demand system (GQAIDS). Elasticities are calculated for policy implications. The empirical results suggest that models considering pre-commitments and nonlinear Engel curves may be slightly more appropriate for Thailand’s energy system, from both statistic and economic standpoints. Statistical inferences appear to favor the GQAIDS model based on the encompassing results. Economic reasonability also appears to favor the GQAIDS model, in particular, petroleum products, as it provides results consistent with the notions of precommitments and fuel substitutability found in previous studies. Most of the previous studies in various forms have shown that the demand for petroleum products is relatively inelastic to price in Thailand. The current study, however, finds that own-price elasticities of uncompensated demand for petroleum products are almost unitary, which is relatively more elastic than most of the previous studies. As such, further studies are required and the price-based policy on petroleum products targeting the reduction in petroleum product dependence must be implemented with caution.

Disruptive events such as the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have the potential to reshape even the most basic human systems and behaviors, including those related to food production, acquisition, and consumption. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of how the pandemic has changed the ratio of food-away-from-home (FAFH) expenditure to income in Mexico, as well as participation in this market. In 2020, household participation in FAFH expenditures declined in all income deciles and regions, but the impact on household shares is far from uniform. Using a detailed national database of household income and expenditures (N = 87,274), an Engel curve of the Working-Lesser functional form for FAFH including 19 independent variables was estimated using the Heckman method appropriate for censored response data. The results provide statistically significant estimates for income, which both increases the probability of participation in this expenditure and has a negative relationship with its budget share. The number of older adults and the exposure to food insecurity during the pandemic similarly limit participation and increase the budget share. In addition, remittances encourage participation and decrease the budget share. The corrected conditional income elasticity for FAFH is 0.4609; the sign and magnitude indicate that FAFH behaved as a necessary good in Mexico for the proportion of households that maintained spending during the lockdown conditions (about one-third of the sample). An increase or decrease in income will lead to a corresponding change in FAFH expenditure, but the change will be less than proportional.

In this study, in order to estimate the Engel curve and income elasticity of Information and communications technology (ICT) for residential urban households in Iran, the Working-Leser equations system functional form has been used considering economic and social characteristics of the households. This model is estimated using Seemingly Unrelated Regressions (SUR) analysis and cross section data on nearly 19 thousands urban households for the year 2015. The results show that income elasticity of ICT for low, middle, and high-income households is 1.22, 1.12 and 0.8 respectively. These results show that ICT is a luxury good for the whole society. However, this commodity group is considered as a necessary good for the wealthy households. Also increasing the level of education leads to an increase in using of information and communication technology products. One percent increase in the years of education, leads to 0.06 percent increase in demand of information and communication technology products.

Abstract We use the shifts in Engel curves calculated from household surveys to estimate CPI biases in Argentina between 1985 and 2005. We find that real earning levels increased during this period between 4.3 and 5.7% faster per year than previously estimated. More surprisingly, relative to conventional wisdom, that income distribution has improved throughout this period.

We use Survey of Household Spending data for 1997–2015 and apply an Engel curve approach to infer how well the all-items Consumer Price Index (CPI) represents the cost of living experienced by Canadian households. We find that the CPI understates the cost of living for households before 2010. After 2009, the CPI overstated the cost of living of households, suggesting that post-recession real incomes were higher than suggested by CPI deflated incomes. Although this result aligns with those of other studies, this silver lining of recession interpretation shows that the Engel curve approach should be used with caution after economic shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a partially linear multivariate model with error in the explanatory variable of the nonparametric part, and an m dimensional response variable is considered. Using the uniform consistency results found for the estimator of the nonparametric part, we derive an estimator of the parametric part. The dependence of the convergence rates on the errors distributions is examined and demonstrated that proposed estimator is asymptotically normal. In main results, both ordinary and super smooth error distributions are considered. Moreover, the derived estimators are applied to the economic behaviors of consumers. Our method handles contaminated data is founded more effectively than the semiparametric method ignores measurement errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for a system of Engel curves to have been generated by a non-cooperative model of family behaviour. These conditions fully characterise the local behaviour of household-level consumption in the cross-section, i.e., as a function of total income and distribution factors. In this setting, any demand system compatible with a non-cooperative model is also compatible with a collective model, but the converse is not true. We describe how these nested conditions may be tested using standard instrumental-variables strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International poverty estimates for countries in Africa commonly rely on national consumer price indexes to adjust trends in nominal consumption over time for changes in the cost of living. However, the consumer price index is subject to various types of measurement bias. This paper uses Engel curve estimations to assess bias in the consumer price index and its implications for estimated poverty trends. The results suggest that in 13 of 16 Sub-Saharan African countries in this study, poverty reduction may be understated because of consumer price index bias. With correction of consumer price index bias, poverty in these countries could fall between 0.4 and 5.2 percentage points per year faster than currently thought. For two countries, however, the paper finds the opposite trend. There is no statistically significant change in poverty patterns after adjusting for consumer price index bias for only one country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expenses of Rent and Predial are indicators that show us if a family lives in a home of rent or own, and informs us about their level of well-being and security. International and national studies show an increase in the proportional expenditure of the aforementioned items as a result of remittances. This paper will analyze the effect of remittances on Rental and Predial expenditures in Mexico by income level, through the National Surveys of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH's) for 2012 and 2014, using Engel ́s Curve by Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). It was found that the proportional expenses of Rent and Predial were reduced in the presence of remittances, with the exception of the last quintile of 2012. Proportional expenditure on Rent for households without remittances behaves as a lower good and for households with remittances as a normal good. Proportional spending in Predial for households with and without remittances behaved as a normal good.

Equivalence scales have a crucial role in poverty measurement. For Turkey, there are no available up-todate equivalence scales, representing Turkish data. There were no efforts for calculation of equivalence scales at the regional level. The aim of the paper is to calculate and propose an equivalence scale for Turkey and estimate regional differences. Besides the models with Engel method, different equivalence scales were estimated by Almost Ideal Demand System. The results of the first model of AIDS approach composed of 5 age groups, is proposed for Turkey, but for simplicity the results of the second AIDS model could be used as well. In this model, the equivalence scale for Turkey is calculated as 0.65 for each additional adult after the first one and 0.35 for each child. For regional equivalence scales, we use two methods and comare the results. In the first one, regressions were run for each region separately and in the second one, dummy variables introduced. The highest difference in the results of the two methods was observed in Istanbul region. The findings for the regional scales are less reliable as the household size is bigger. This limitation is due to the relatively small size of the data sets. Having surveys with higher sample sizes would enable better results. After getting the results some conclusions could be drawn especially with regard to child cost differences among regions. It was expected to have higher costs for children in poorer regions and the regional results have confirmed this hypothesis.

Inequalities in educational achievement in Paraguay have been well-documented by geographic location, gender, and language. But little is known about the pattern of household education expenditure in Paraguay. Using the 2011/2012 “Encuesta de Ingresos y Gastos,” this study investigates household gender biases within households in allocating educational expenditure, as well as gaps between households in the level of education expenditure in Paraguay using a unified regression framework. A working-Leser model is specified to estimate an Engel curve, which describes a household’s education expenditure as a function of total expenditure and other household characteristics. No evidence of gender bias in household education expenditure was found. Gaps in education expenditure by language spoken in the household are not statistically significant after controlling for household resources and geographic location, but the rural-urban gap in educational expenditure remains. The estimated total education expenditure elasticities suggest that education is a luxury good. However, the model also suggests that increasing household resources alone will not eliminate gaps in educational expenditure without also improving education quality and access. This is the only known study documenting that education, regardless of socioeconomic status, is a luxury good in Paraguay. It also provides empirical evidence that household’s may be shifting from a pro-male to a pro-female bias in education expenditure.

While Fairtrade sales have exhibited two-digit growth rates over recent decades, their capacity to become large enough to generate substantial gains for producers is still uncertain. Estimating Fairtrade Engel curves based on real purchases, this article describes how Fairtrade consumption varies with consumer characteristics and total income. Results show high expenditure elasticities for Fairtrade demand, and suggest that market expansion lies in the growth of income per capita in import countries and in an increase in the diversity, availability, and quality of products. Implications for producers are drawn from the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The group of formal power series under substitution over 𝔽p, the so-called Nottingham group, is a pro-p group so it is a metric space. The intertwining of these two structures is an important object of study. This paper is concerned with how the power map influences the distance of elements. Suppose that d(ƒ, g) = d1 while d(ƒ, 1) = d2 ≥ d1. In this paper we provide a sharp bound for d(ƒj, gj) in terms of d1, d2 and the exponent j. This bound confirms a conjecture by K. Keating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses optimal corrective taxation and optimal income redistribution. The Pigouvian pollution tax is higher if pollution damages disproportionally hurt the poor due to equity weighting of pollution damages. Moreover, under general utility functions, optimal pollution taxes should be set below the Pigouvian tax if the poor spend a disproportionate fraction of their income on polluting goods. However, if Engel curves are linear, optimal pollution taxes should follow the first-best rule for the Pigouvian corrective tax even if the government wants to redistribute income and the poor spend a disproportional part of their income on polluting goods. The often-used quasi-linear, CES and Stone-Geary utility functions all have linear Engel curves. If Engel curves are linear, and if pollution taxes are not optimised, Pareto-improving green tax reforms exist that move the pollution tax closer to the Pigouvian tax. Simulations demonstrate that optimal corrective taxes should be Pigouvian if the demand for polluting goods is derived from a LES demand system, but deviate from the Pigouvian taxes if demand for polluting goods demand is derived from a PIGLOG demand system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental Engel curves (EECs) describe households' incomes and the pollution necessary to produce the goods and services they consume. We calculate 29 annual EECs from 1984 to 2012 for point-source air pollutants in the United States, revealing three clear results: EECs slope upward, have income elasticities less than 1, and shift down over time. Even without changes to production techniques, pollution would have declined despite growing incomes. This improvement can be attributed about equally to two trends: household income growth represented by movement along inelastic EECs and economy-wide changes represented by downward shifts in EECs over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we define the concepts of Engel, nilpotent and solvable BCI-algebras and investigate some of their properties. Specially, we prove that any BCK-algebra is a 2-Engel. Then we define the center of a BCI-algebra and prove that in a nilpotent BCI-algebra X, each minimal closed ideal of X is contained in the center of X. In addition, with some conditions, we show that every finite BCI-algebra is solvable. Finally, we investigate the relations among Engel, nilpotent and solvable BCI(BCK)-algebras. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimates of poverty in India are crucial inputs for the understanding of world poverty, yet there is much disagreement about the numbers and the legitimacy of methods used to derive them. In this paper, we propose and justify an alternative approach to identify the poor, which uses the proportion of income spent on food. Our estimates have weaker data requirements than official methods, and they compare favorably with several validation tests. Most notably, households around our state poverty lines obtain their calories from similar sources, whereas this is not true of official poverty lines. We also find that rates of self‐reported hunger are higher in states that we classify as poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article offers an analytical framework for studying consumer demand for food quality based on a theory‐consistent demand model, namely, the Exact Affine Stone Index specification. Importantly, it accounts for unobserved consumer and regional heterogeneity, and allows for arbitrary Engel curves. The empirical value of our framework is illustrated in an econometric analysis of demand for food quality in China. Evaluating possible structural changes in consumer food expenditures in China is of paramount importance, given the ever‐increasing global role of China and the implications of the structural food preference changes for the global food system. The major findings emerging from this study indicate that income is an important determinant of demand for food quality and quantity with the relatively more affluent provinces having a higher affinity for food quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]