Search

Air pollution is a global challenge, and especially urban areas are particularly affected by acute episodes. Traditional approaches used to mitigate air pollution primarily consider the technical aspects of the problem but not the role of citizen behaviour and day-to-day practices. ClairCity, a Horizon 2020 funded project, created an impact assessment framework considering the role of citizen behaviour to create future scenarios, aiming to improve urban environments and the wellbeing and health of its inhabitants. This framework was applied to six pilot cases: Bristol, Amsterdam, Ljubljana, Sosnowiec, Aveiro Region and Liguria Region, considering three-time horizons: 2025, 2035 and 2050. The scenarios approach includes the Business As Usual (BAU) scenario and a Final Unified Policy Scenarios (FUPS) established by citizens, decision-makers, local planners and stakeholders based on data collected through a citizen and stakeholder co-creation process. Therefore, this paper aims to present the ClairCity outcomes, analysing the quantified impacts of selected measures in terms of emissions, air quality, population exposure, and health. Each case study has established a particular set of measures with different levels of ambition, therefore different levels of success were achieved towards the control and mitigation of their specific air pollution problems. The transport sector was the most addressed by the measures showing substantial improvements for NO2, already with the BAU scenarios, and overall, even better results when applying the citizen-led FUPS scenarios. In some cases, due to a lack of ambition for the residential and commercial sector, the results were not sufficient to fulfil the WHO guidelines. Overall, it was found in all cities that the co-created scenarios would lead to environmental improvements in terms of air quality and citizens’ health compared to the baseline year of 2015. However, in some cases, the health impacts were lower than air quality due to the implementation of the measures not affecting the most densely populated areas. Benefits from the FUPS comparing to the BAU scenario were found to be highest in Amsterdam and Bristol, with further NO2 and PM10 emission reductions around 10%–16% by 2025 and 19%–28% by 2050, compared to BAU.

The lockdown enforced by the UK Government to prevent the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has led to an unparalleled reduction in traffic volumes and significant drop in nitrogen dioxide concentrations in most cities, although the picture emerging from residential emissions of particulate matter (PM 10and PM 2.5) is more complex. The scale and degree of the intervention have exposed the level of change required to reduce pollution. Learning from the COVID-19 crisis, we identify three challenges that must be overcome to improve air quality in cities. First, what measures would be effective that balance civil liberties with enforcement action on air pollution? Second, how do we consolidate the cultural change needed to retain and normalise the social practices driving the observed pollution reduction? Third, how do we tackle these challenges in a way that breaks current patterns of socio-economic, health and environmental inequality?.

Access to detailed comparisons of the air quality variations encountered when commuting through a city offers the urban traveller more informed choice on how to minimise personal exposure to inhalable pollutants. In this study we report on an experiment designed to compare atmospheric contaminants, in this case, PM2.5 inhaled during rickshaw, bus, metro, non-air-conditioned car, air-conditioned (AC) car and walking journeys through the city of Delhi, India. The data collection was carried out using a portable TSI SidePak Aerosol Monitor AM520, during February 2018. The results demonstrate that rickshaws (266 ± 159 μg/m3) and walking (259 ± 102 μg/m3) modes were exposed to significantly higher mean PM2.5 levels, whereas AC cars (89 ± 30 μg/m3) and the metro (72 ± 11 μg/m3) had the lowest overall exposure rates. Buses (113 ± 14 μg/m3) and non-AC cars (149 ± 13 μg/m3) had average levels of exposure, but open windows and local factors caused surges in PM2.5 for both transport modes. Closed air-conditioned transport modes were shown to be the best modes for avoiding high concentrations of PM2.5, however other factors (e.g. time of the day, window open or closed in the vehicles) affected exposure levels significantly. Overall, the highest total respiratory deposition doses (RDDs) values were estimated as 84.7 ± 33.4 μg/km, 15.8 ± 9.5 μg/km and 9.7 ± 0.9 μg/km for walking, rickshaw and non-AC car transported mode of journey, respectively. Unless strong pollution control measures are taken, the high exposure to PM2.5 levels will continue causing serious short-term and long-term health concerns for the Delhi residents. Implementing integrated and intelligent transport systems and educating commuters on ways to reduce exposure levels and impacts on commuter's health are required.

European cities have made significant progress over the last decades towards clean air. Despite this progress, several cities are still facing acute air pollution episodes, with various urban areas frequently exceeding air quality levels allowed by the European legal standards and WHO guidelines. In this paper, six European cities/ regions (Bristol, UK; Amsterdam, NL; Sosnowiec, PL; Ljubljana, SI; Aveiro, PT; Liguria, IT) are studied in terms of air quality, namely particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone. The concentrations trends from 2008 to 2017 in the different typology of monitoring stations are addressed, together with the knowledge of daily, weekly and seasonal pollution patterns to better understand the city specific profiles and to characterize pollutant dynamics and variations in multiple locations. Additionally, an analysis of the duration and severity of air pollution episodes is also discussed, followed by an analysis of the fulfillment of the legislated limit values. Each of our 6 case study locations face different air pollution problems, but all these case studies have made some progress in reducing ambient concentrations. In Bristol, there have been strong downward trends in many air pollutants, but the levels of NO2 remain persistently high and of concern. In recent years, decreasing concentration levels point to some success of Amsterdam air quality policies. PM10 exceedances are a seasonal pollution problem in Ljubljana, Sosnowiec and Aveiro region (even if with different levels of severity). While, exceedances of NO2 and O3 concentrations are still problematic in Liguria region. The main findings of this paper are particular relevant to define and compare future citizen-led strategies and policy initiatives that may be implemented to improve and fulfill the EU legislation and the WHO guidelines. published

Elevated urban Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) is a consequence of road traffic and other fossil-fuel combustion sources, and the road transport sector provides a significant contribution to UK NO2 emissions. The inhalation of traffic-related air pollution, including NO2, can cause a range of problems to human health. Due to their developing organs, children are particularly susceptible to the negative effects of air pollution inhalation. Accordingly, schools and associated travel behaviours present an important area of study for the reduction of child exposure to these harmful pollutants. COVID-19 reached the UK in late January 2020. On the 23rd of March that year, the UK government announced a nationwide stay-at-home order, or lockdown, banning all non-essential travel and contact with people outside of their own homes. The lockdown was accompanied by the closure of schools, public facilities, amenities, businesses and places of worship. The current study aims to assess the significance of nationwide NO2 reductions at schools in England as a consequence of the lockdown in order to highlight the benefits of associated behavioural changes within the context of schools in England and potential child exposure. NO2 data were collected from all AURN (Automatic Urban and Rural Network) monitoring sites within 500 m of nurseries, primary schools, secondary schools and colleges in England. A significant reduction of mean NO2 concentrations was observed in the first month of the UK lockdown at background (−35.13%) and traffic (−40.82%) sites. Whilst lockdown restrictions are undoubtedly unsustainable, the study results demonstrate the possible reductions of NO2 at schools in England and potential reductions of child exposure that are achievable when public behaviours shift towards active travel, work from home policies and generally lower use of polluting vehicles., Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image

Technological approaches to carbon emission and air pollution data modelling consider where the issues are located and what is creating emissions. This paper argues that more focus should be paid to people—the drivers of vehicles or households burning fossil fuels (‘Who’) and the reasons for doing so at those times (‘Why’). We applied insights from social psychology (social identity theory and social cognitive theory) to better understand and communicate how people’s everyday activities are a cause of climate change and air pollution. A new method for citizen-focused source apportionment modelling and communication was developed in the ClairCity project and applied to travel data from Bristol, U.K. This approach enables understanding of the human dimension of vehicle use to improve policymaking, accounting for demographics (gender or age groups), socio-economic factors (income/car ownership) and motives for specific behaviours (e.g., commuting to work, leisure, shopping, etc.). Tailored communications for segmented in-groups were trialled, aiming to connect with group lived experiences and day-to-day behaviours. This citizen-centred approach aims to make groups more aware that ‘people like me’ create emissions, and equally, ‘people like me’ can take action to reduce emissions.

European cities have made significant progress over the last decades towards a clean air. Despite all this progress, several urban areas are frequently exceeding air quality levels allowed by the European legal standards. The ClairCity project funded by the H2020 program addressed air pollution bringing a key missing factor in the way cities and societies organized themselves and work: citizens at the heart not only of the air pollution issues, but also of the solution, focusing on their behaviour, activities and practices. In this work, the ClairCity European pilot cities and regions (Bristol in the UK, Amsterdam in the Netherlands, Ljubljana in Slovenia, Sosnowiec in Poland, the Aveiro region in Portugal and the Liguria region around Genoa in Italy) are studied in terms of air quality for a 10 year period regarding the main atmospheric pollutants over urban areas, namely particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone.Therefore, the main objective of this work is to present a comprehensive diagnosis of the air quality and its main emission sources for each case study. The concentrations trends in the different typology of monitoring stations (background, traffic and industrial) were addressed, together with the knowledge of daily, weekly and seasonal pollution patterns to better understand the city specific profiles and to characterise pollutant dynamics and variations in multiple locations. Each city/ region faces different issues and causes of air pollution, but all of these case studies have been working on to improve their air quality. In Bristol there have been strong downward trends in many air pollutants, but the levels of NO2 remain persistently high and of concern, with transport the key contributor. PM on the other hand is not widely monitored in Bristol, but background levels at least are under limit values. Similarly, the main sources of air pollution in Amsterdam are traffic, in particular for NO2, and international shipping. Decreasing emissions and concentration levels point to some success of Amsterdam air quality policies in recent years. PM10 exceedances are a seasonal pollution problem in Ljubljana, with the main particulate matter sources attributed to residential heating, which is still significantly outdated in some parts of the city, where households still heat with burning wood and biomass during winter. The most pressing issue for air quality within Sosnowiec is emissions from residential heating. Particulate matter are the main critical pollutants, linked with the use of inefficient heating systems, together with poor quality fuels, in winter. On the other hand, NO2 limit values are also exceeded in Sosnowiec, but in comparison to the low-stack emissions, the problem is far smaller. On contrary, air quality in the Aveiro region is relatively good, due to an overall relatively low population density in the region, and an open landscape in a maritime climate. PM10 and O3 exceedances do occur occasionally. While, exceedances of NO2 and O3 concentrations are still problematic in Liguria region, with road transport, industrial plants and port activities being the main contributors to these problems.

Agriculture is responsible for 98% of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) in Ireland, of which pigs and poultry produce 7%; with laying hens specifically contributing 0.6%. Though a small proportion of the national NH3 total emissions, the ecological impacts on sensitive sites attributed to laying hen farms can be substantial. NH3 emission monitoring was conducted in Spring (February to March) and Summer (July to August) 2016 to account for seasonal variation. The total average emission and ventilation rate was 0.25 g bird−1 day−1 and 931 cm3 s−1 bird−1. This is lower than the previously used emission factor for the Irish national inventory of 0.5 g bird−1 day−1, but broadly similar to factors reported in the United Kingdom (UK) and the European Union (EU). Dispersion modelling using monitored data indicated potentially acute effects within 84 m, critical level exceedance within 312 m and exceedance of 0.3 kg N ha−1 year−1 deposition within 2.9–5.2 km. The sensitivity of the model was tested using SCAIL-Agriculture emission and ventilation rates which showed P-values for one tailed critical level below 0.01 for all models, indicating that when normalised the maximum extents modelled by AERMOD were significantly different. This analysis showed emission rate having more influence than ventilation rate. Both parameters combined had the greatest increase in dispersion extent, on average 55.8% greater than the use of monitored rates. A deposition rate of 0.3 kg N ha−1 year−1 was modelled to occur within 5.1–7.7 km when using SCAIL-Agriculture rates. Indicating that the use of SCAIL-Agriculture recommended emission and ventilation rates would have been sufficiently precautionary to assess negative ecological effects on a Natura 2000 site under the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). In relation to Appropriate Assessment (AA) screening, the use of any contribution from a source within a set distance may be an appropriate full AA trigger. Environmental Protection Agency

Countries around the world introduced strict restrictions on movement and activities known as ‘lockdowns’ to restrict the spread of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) from the end of 2019. A sudden improvement in air quality was observed globally as a result of these lockdowns. To provide insight into the changes in air pollution levels in response to the COVID-19 restrictions we have compared surface air quality data in Delhi during four phases of lockdown and the first phase of the restriction easing period (25 March to 30 June 2020) with data from a baseline period (2018–2019). Simultaneously, short-term exposure of PM2.5 and O3 attributed premature mortality were calculated to understand the health benefit of the change in air quality. Ground-level observations in Delhi showed that concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 dropped substantially in 2020 during the overall study period compared with the same period in previous years, with average reductions of ~49%, ~39%, and ~39%, respectively. An overall lower reduction in O3 of ~19% was observed for Delhi. A slight increase in O3 was found in Delhi’s industrial and traffic regions. The highest peak of the diurnal variation decreased substantially for all the pollutants at every phase. The decrease in PM2.5 and O3 concentrations in 2020, prevented 904 total premature deaths, a 60% improvement when compared to the figures for 2018-2019. The restrictions on human activities during the lockdown have reduced anthropogenic emissions and subsequently improved air quality and human health in one of the most polluted cities in the world. Implication StatementI am submitting herewith the manuscript entitled “Unprecedented Reduction in Air Pollution and Corresponding Short-term Premature Mortality Associated with COVID-19 Forced Confinement in Delhi, India” for potential publishing in your journal.The novelty of this research lies in: (1) we utilized ground-level air quality data in Delhi during four phases of lockdown and the first phase of unlocking period (25th March to 30th June) for 2020 as well as data from the baseline period (2018–2019) to provide an early insight into the changes in air pollution levels in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) Chatarize the change of diurnal variation of the pollutants and (3) we assess the health risk due to PM2.5 and O3. Results from ground-level observations in Delhi showed that concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 substantially dropped in 2020 during the overall study period compared to the similar period in previous years, with an average reduction of ~49%, ~39%, and ~39%, respectively. In the case of O3, the overall reduction was observed as ~19% in Delhi, while a slight increase was found in industrial and traffic regions. And consequently, the highest peak of the diurnal variation decreased substantially for all the pollutants. The health impact assessment of the changes in air quality indicated that 904 short-term premature deaths (~60%) were prevented due to the decline in PM2.5 and O3 concentrations in the study period. The restrictions on human activities during the lockdown have reduced the anthropogenic emissions and subsequently improved air quality and human health in one of the most polluted cities in the world. Implication Statement I am submitting herewith the manuscript entitled “Unprecedented Reduction in Air Pollution and Corresponding Short-term Premature Mortality Associated with COVID-19 Forced Confinement in Delhi, India” for potential publishing in your journal. The novelty of this research lies in: (1) we utilized ground-level air quality data in Delhi during four phases of lockdown and the first phase of unlocking period (25th March to 30th June) for 2020 as well as data from the baseline period (2018–2019) to provide an early insight into the changes in air pollution levels in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) Chatarize the change of diurnal variation of the pollutants and (3) we assess the health risk due to PM2.5 and O3. Results from ground-level observations in Delhi showed that concentrations of PM10, PM2.5 and NO2 substantially dropped in 2020 during the overall study period compared to the similar period in previous years, with an average reduction of ~49%, ~39%, and ~39%, respectively. In the case of O3, the overall reduction was observed as ~19% in Delhi, while a slight increase was found in industrial and traffic regions. And consequently, the highest peak of the diurnal variation decreased substantially for all the pollutants. The health impact assessment of the changes in air quality indicated that 904 short-term premature deaths (~60%) were prevented due to the decline in PM2.5 and O3 concentrations in the study period. The restrictions on human activities during the lockdown have reduced the anthropogenic emissions and subsequently improved air quality and human health in one of the most polluted cities in the world.

The success of water and energy smart metering is highly contingent on a successful communication strategy. We report on the findings from a qualitative study involving discourse analysis of customer messaging and focus groups with utility professionals. Discourse analysis suggests that the primary framings applied are "control", "convenience and "savings". Focus groups revealed paradoxes contained in these framings as the participants associate metering with the loss of control over private data, inconvenience during the installation process, and lack of financial gains if customers’ lifestyles cannot support “smart” decisions. Future communications should be tailored to the values and needs of consumers.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present results from the action research project, where sustainability professionals, local businesses and academic researchers collaborated on exploring barriers for food waste recycling in SMEs food outlets in order to inform local policy and business practices in Bristol, UK. Design/methodology/approach The researchers conducted face-to-face, qualitative surveys of 79 catering businesses in three diverse areas of the city. The action research methodology was applied, where a range of co-researchers contributed towards study design and review. Findings The research reveals the main barriers to recycling and how such perceptions differ depending on whether the respondents do or do not recycle, with “convenience” and “cost” being the main issue according to the already recycling participants. On the other hand, participants who do not recycle state that their main reason is “not enough waste” and “lack of space”. Practical implications Participants recommended a range of measures, which could improve the current food waste services in Bristol. For example, they suggest that business engagement should address the barriers voiced by the participants applying the framings used by them, rather than assuming restaurants and cafes are not aware of the issue. By inviting a variety of non-academic stakeholders into the process of research design and analysis, the project addressed the imbalances in knowledge production and policy design. Originality/value Despite the local and qualitative focus of this paper, the results and research methodology could act as a useful guide for conducting food waste action research in the policy context.

This paper critically reviews United Kingdom (UK) air quality policy in relation to European and Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) responsibilities over the last 20 years. The arguments articulated in this paper highlight the gulf between national and local air quality management in the UK, including differences in legislation, legal responsibilities, scales of operation, monitoring and modelling requirements, exceedence reporting and action planning. It is argued that local authorities cannot be held responsible for the UK’s failure to achieve the European Union (EU) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) limit values due to fundamental differences between local government responsibilities under LAQM and the UK compliance assessment reporting to the EU. Furthermore, unambitious and counterproductive national policies and the failure of EU light-duty vehicle type approval tests and Euro standards to reduce real-world emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the main reasons for continued NO2 limit value exceedences. This failure of EU and national air quality policies has effectively undermined local authority action to improve local air quality, resulting in delays in achieving the standards, wasted resources at local and national levels, and, ultimately, unnecessary loss of life and increased morbidity in the UK population. This paper concludes that the current emphasis that the UK government is placing on implementation of Clean Air Zones (CAZs) to achieve the Ambient Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC) (AAQD), and avoid substantial fines imposed by the European Court of Justice (CJEU), is flawed. Based on the arguments presented in this paper, a series of recommendations is proposed for the European Union, the UK government, devolved administrations and local authorities.

Background Outdoor air pollution is a significant public health problem. The UK Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime is intended to protect public health through a prescribed process of assessment and collaborative action. Despite its intention and underpinning principles, public health bodies and specialists do not interact with or support LAQM as much as they could or should. This study aimed to explore and understand this disconnect, to inform action that can resolve problems and maximise public health integration, collaboration and impact in this important public health work. Methods The Delphi technique was used to elicit multiple viewpoints from a range of experts on this complex problem in Wales, UK. Over three iterative feedback-interspersed survey rounds, 86 expert panellists generated opinions and formed consensus on the role of public health bodies and specialists in LAQM and the added value that might be achieved as a result of increased integration and collaboration. Linked opportunities, barriers and solutions were also described. Qualitative data were subject to thematic analysis; quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics to assess consensus, and the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test to assess response stability. Results Consensus opinion confirmed the public health role in LAQM should support both broader mainstream risk assessment and management, and also enabling functions such as communications, research and evidence appraisal, advocacy and leadership. Linked opportunities, barriers and solutions were described so as to facilitate change. Panellists suggested that the added value of increasing integration and collaboration would be more efficient, creative and productive collaboration, meaningful risk assessments and effective action. Conclusions The significant role of public health in LAQM is rarely recognised or realised. The findings of this study present a convincing evidence-based case for directing and supporting much-needed change to LAQM so as to increase public health integration, collaboration and impact. Not only has this study generated new evidence to enhance LAQM policy and practice, it has also confirmed the applicability of the Delphi method in investigating complex environmental public health problems. While some opinions generated relat to Wales’ unique circumstances, most were general in context and will have relevance and importance across the UK and in countries beyond where air quality management and public health policy and practice are disconnected.

With growing global demand for food, the agriculture sector worldwide is under pressure to intensify and expand, risking acceleration of existing negative biodiversity impacts. Agriculture is the dominant source of ammonia (NH3) emissions, which can impact biodiversity directly through dry deposition as NH3 and by wet deposition following conversion to ammonium (NH4) in the atmosphere. Nitrogen deposition is one of the leading causes of global decline in biodiversity alongside changing land use and climate. Natura 2000 sites which are intended to protect important habitats and species across Europe, require strict levels of protection to ensure designated features achieve favourable conservation status. Many of these sites are nitrogen-limited, and/or contain sensitive species such as lichens or mosses. This project carried out ambient NH3 monitoring on selected Irish Natura 2000 sites, in order to establish potential impacts from agricultural NH3. Monitoring on twelve Natura 2000 sites observed concentrations ranging from 0.47 to 4.59 μg NH3 m−3, from which dry deposition was calculated to be 1.22–11.92 kg N ha−1 yr−1. European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) was used to quantify wet deposited NH4 and nitrogen oxides (NOx), in addition to dry deposited NOx on monitored sites. Estimated total nitrogen deposition ranged between 5.93 and 17.78 kg N ha−1 yr−1. On average across all monitored sites, deposition was comprised of 50.4%, 31.7%, 7.5%, and 10.3% dry NH3, wet NH4, dry NOx and wet NOx respectively. Implications for Irish agriculture are discussed in the light of both this monitoring and the European Commission Dutch Nitrogen Case (C 293/17 & C 294/17), highlighting a number of recommendations to aid compliance with the EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC).

© 2016 WIT Press, www.witpress.com. This paper explores the challenges, opportunities and progress made with managing air quality since the United Kingdom parliament passed the Clean Air Act, 1956. It seeks to identify the factors contributing to successful management of air quality and the factors that have acted, or continue to do so, as barriers to progress. The public health catastrophe of the 1952 London Smog created the political momentum for the 1956 Act to be passed. The nature of the contemporary air pollution challenge is reviewed in terms of the public health burden, the economic cost and the governmental response. The contemporary response is considered inadequate for the scale and intensity of the problem.

Hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’, involves the extraction of natural gas from shale formations deep underground using vertical and horizontal drilling technologies and vast quantities of chemically treated water injected into the wells under high pressure. Although commercial fracking has been underway in the USA since the 1990s, the industry is in its infancy elsewhere in the world. Rapid increases in gas production in the US have spurred interest in countries as far flung as the UK, China, Poland, Argentina and South Africa, although there is much uncertainty over potential gains and the environmental costs of the new technology (Buchan, 2013; European Commission, 2012a). In the UK, there are currently no companies actively fracking but several are undertaking exploratory drilling, and many policymakers, academics, environmental activists and energy industry specialists feel that the UK could be on the edge of a ‘fracking boom’. Some see fracking as a potential energy bonanza ensuring the UK’s energy security well into the future, while others fear that it could bring significant harm to the environment and public health. In this article, we explore several dimensions of these uncertainties generally, and assess specifically some of the implications for the UK water environment. We also suggest ways in which the UK could learn from the experiences of fracking in the USA.

The UK’s Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime is designed to protect people’s health from the ill-effects of air pollution, but it is failing to achieve its full potential. The Public Health aspects of, perspectives on, and integration and engagement in, LAQM have been poorly considered to date. This critical literature review assessed LAQM-related strengths and limitations in order to explore how Public Health, through greater integration and engagement, can add value to the regime. ‘Structure’ and ‘process’ weaknesses were identified, including: a poorly defined Public Health role, a narrowly-scoped prescribed process, risk assessment uncertainties, ineffective communications, shallow evaluations and disconnected policies. Separately and cumulatively, these have hindered Public Health integration in LAQM policy and practice and stunted the regime's evolution. Engaging Public Health in LAQM future design and delivery can help solve these problems, by improving risk assessments and raising awareness of air pollution and other health-influencing relationships, targeting action in high-need areas, coordinating air pollution mitigation and health improvement interventions, and connecting different policy areas. Increasing Public Health integration and engagement in LAQM can enhance the existing regime. Acting now is timely from both LAQM and Public Health perspectives. This review's findings should be used to inform debates and decisions around the future development of Local Air Quality Management arrangements both in the UK and beyond.

Bioaerosols have been associated with adverse respiratory-related health effects and are emitted in elevated concentrations from composting facilities. We used modelled Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations, a good indicator for bioaerosol emissions, to assess associations with respiratory-related hospital admissions. Mean daily Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations were estimated for each composting site for first full year of permit issue from 2005 onwards to 2014 for Census Output Areas (COAs) within 4 km of 76 composting facilities in England, as previously described (Williams et al., 2019). We fitted a hierarchical generalized mixed model to examine the risk of hospital admission with a primary diagnosis of (i) any respiratory condition, (ii) respiratory infections, (iii) asthma, (iv) COPD, (v) diseases due to organic dust, and (vi) Cystic Fibrosis, in relation to quartiles of Aspergillus fumigatus concentrations. Models included a random intercept for each COA to account for over-dispersion, nested within composting facility, on which a random intercept was fitted to account for clustering of the data, with adjustments for age, sex, ethnicity, deprivation, tobacco sales (smoking proxy) and traffic load (as a proxy for traffic-related air pollution). We included 249,748 respiratory-related and 3163 Cystic Fibrosis hospital admissions in 9606 COAs with a population-weighted centroid within 4 km of the 76 included composting facilities. After adjustment for confounders, no statistically significant effect was observed for any respiratory-related (Relative Risk (RR) = 0.99; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.96-1.01) or for Cystic Fibrosis (RR = 1.01; 95% CI 0.56-1.83) hospital admissions for COAs in the highest quartile of exposure. Similar results were observed across all respiratory disease sub-groups. This study does not provide evidence for increased risks of respiratory-related hospitalisations for those living near composting facilities. However, given the limitations in the dispersion modelling, risks cannot be completely ruled out. Hospital admissions represent severe respiratory episodes, so further study would be needed to investigate whether bioaerosols emitted from composting facilities have impacts on less severe episodes or respiratory symptoms.

Bioaerosol emissions arising from biowaste treatment are an issue of public concern. To better characterise the bioaerosols, and to assess a range of measurement methods, we aerosolised green waste compost under controlled conditions. Viable and non-viable Andersen samplers, cyclone samplers and a real time bioaerosol detection system (Spectral Intensity Bioaerosol Sensor (SIBS)) were deployed simultaneously. The number-weighted fraction of fluorescent particles was in the range 22&ndash, 26% of all particles for low and high emission scenarios. Overall fluorescence spectral profiles seen by the SIBS exhibited several peaks across the 16 wavelength bands from 298 to 735 nm. The size-fractionated endotoxin profile showed most endotoxin resided in the 2.1&ndash, 9 &mu, m aerodynamic diameter fraction, though up to 27% was found in a finer size fraction. A range of microorganisms were detected through culture, Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption and Ionisation Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), including Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1. These findings contribute to our knowledge of the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of bioaerosols from composting sites, as well as informing future monitoring approaches and data interpretation for bioaerosol measurement.

Endotoxin is a bioaerosol component that is known to cause respiratory effects in exposed populations. To date, most research focused on occupational exposure, whilst much less is known about the impact of emissions from industrial operations on downwind endotoxin concentrations. A review of the literature was undertaken, identifying studies that reported endotoxin concentrations in both ambient environments and around sources with high endotoxin emissions. Ambient endotoxin concentrations in both rural and urban areas are generally below 10 endotoxin units (EU) m−3; however, around significant sources such as compost facilities, farms, and wastewater treatment plants, endotoxin concentrations regularly exceeded 100 EU m−3. However, this is affected by a range of factors including sampling approach, equipment, and duration. Reported downwind measurements of endotoxin demonstrate that endotoxin concentrations can remain above upwind concentrations. The evaluation of reported data is complicated due to a wide range of different parameters including sampling approaches, temperature, and site activity, demonstrating the need for a standardised methodology and improved guidance. Thorough characterisation of ambient endotoxin levels and modelling of endotoxin from pollution sources is needed to help inform future policy and support a robust health-based risk assessment process.

Delhi National Capital Region (Delhi NCR) is facing serious challenges linked to worrying levels of air pollution (mainly NO2, PM10 and PM2.5). The CADTIME prject (Clean Air in Delhi through Implementation, Mitigation and Engagement) aims to understand what is required to deliver significant reductions in levels of air pollution. This paper presents the results of the first stage of the project: it firstly contextualises the challenges of air quality management in Delhi within the broader evolution of environmental policies and governance in India, with particular consideration to the tensions between environmental protection and the country’s development objectives. Secondly, it sets out how CADTIME will combine multiple source qualitative and quantitative data to develop an air quality action plan and an implementation strategy. In particular, through two workshops with local and national experts and stakeholders, and two rounds of focus groups with citizens of Delhi we will contrast stakeholders’ priorities and preferences for existing and potential solutions to air pollution with citizens’ lived experiences, thus assessing the political/technical feasibility and public acceptability of current and proposed measures. Furthermore, we will complement the primary qualitative data with a critical review examining the successes and failures of UK and European policies to draw lessons that can be relevant for Delhi and to avoid ineffective policies and achieve cost-effective solutions for the city in the shortest possible time.

Bioaerosols, comprised of bacteria, fungi and viruses are ubiquitous in ambient air. Known to adversely affect human health, the impact of bioaerosols on a population often manifests as outbreaks of illnesses such as Legionnaires Disease and Q fever, although the concentrations and environmental conditions in which these impacts occur are not well understood. Bioaerosol concentrations vary from source to source, but specific industrialised human activities such as water treatment, intensive agriculture and open windrow composting facilitate the generation of bioaerosol concentrations many times higher than natural background levels. Bioaerosol sampling is currently undertaken according to the requirements of the Environment Agency’s regulatory framework, in which the collection of bioaerosols and not its long-term measurement is of most importance. As a consequence, sampling devices are often moved around site according to changing wind direction and sampling intervals are invariably short-term. The dispersion modelling of bioaerosols from composting facilities typically relies on proxy pollutant parameters. In addition, the use of short term emission data gathering strategies in which monitors are moved frequently with wind direction, do not provide a robust reliable and repeatable dataset by which to validate any modelling or to verify its performance. New sampling methods such as the Spectral Intensity Bioaerosol Sensor (SIBS) provide an opportunity to address several gaps in bioaerosol model validation and verification. In the context of model validation, this paper sets out the current weaknesses in bioaerosol monitoring from the perspective of robust modelling requirements.

The scope of the work requested under this specific contract is to provide a report/assessment text that may be directly incorporated into EEA’s 2018 report exploring the linkages between socioeconomic status (SES) in Europe and exposure to air and noise pollution, as well as to climate-related impacts. More specifically, this report builds on the findings of the 2016 Science for Environment Policy (SEP) report to provide an updated qualitative review of the latest evidence and state of knowledge regarding the role of SES in determining exposure, susceptibility and vulnerability to air pollution and noise, documenting research that explores the multiple factors and drivers that can lie behind these linkages. This review has identified and synthesised evidence from a wide range of sources in response to the objectives set by the EEA and covers evidence relating to at least 18 of the EEA-33 countries. The conclusions presented here explicitly identify where this review confirms, contradicts or adds to the conclusions of the SEP report.

© 2018 WIT Press. Air pollution has as significant impact on the health of European citizens, particularly in urban areas, and was responsible for more than 400,000 premature deaths in Europe in 2014. It is within our cities where this public health impact is most acute as high population densities and high ambient concentrations result in an increased risk of exposure. This health impact is further exacerbated as air pollution interacts with other social determinants of health creating a disproportionate risk and burden. Traditional top-down government policy development and consultation, married with a very techno-centric view of air pollution sources and solutions, has resulted in a general apathy among citizens towards the problem of air pollution and subsequently a lack of ownership of the solutions. The ClairCity Project aims to create a major shift in public understanding towards the causes of poor air quality, inviting citizens to give their opinions on air pollution and carbon reduction policies to shape the cities of the future. By putting citizens' behaviour and activities at the heart of policy making for air quality and carbon management, ClairCity has utilised a suite of innovative toolkits for enhanced quantification and citizen engagement (such as surveys, workshops, online games and apps) to assess the public acceptability of specific policies and also to enable a bottom-up, citizen-led scenario creation process whereby citizens are empowered to visualise clean, low carbon, healthy futures for their city.

This presentation provides a high-level assessment of air pollution and its management viewed through the lens of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It contains • a short overview of the sparse literature, • an assessment of the impact of air pollution as a barrier to achieving the SDGs • an assessment of the enabling contribution of air quality management. • concluding observations and a call for further research.

© 2018 WIT Press. The leading source of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations in Bristol, United Kingdom is road transport, and Bristol exceeds the annual mean national air quality objective of 40 µg/m3 for NO2 in many locations around the city. Understanding the reasons for residents' modal choice is an important element in managing air quality in the city. The ClairCity Project approach provides insight into how to reduce overall transport demand and identify incentives that will be effective in creating modal switch away from higher polluting private motorised vehicles. From the ClairCity Project survey subset of commuters (n=442), 45% of respondents used cars or vans at least occasionally for their journey to work, with 28% of the total number of commuters relying exclusively on private motorised transport. The majority of these car users (65.6%) said they would prefer not to travel by car to work in the future. Their responses showed a mix of negative perceptions of public transport, geography and health as key motivations. Family responsibilities, lack of safe cycling and walking spaces, poor health and disability, distance, requirements to transport goods as well as themselves and the need for flexibility were all given as barriers to modal switching. This suggests that for car commuters, well-targeted policy interventions could provide practical alternatives that would appeal to those who currently rely on private motorised transport. Understanding citizens' perceptions, behaviours and activities is a key element in decision-making to reduce transport related air quality emissions and concentrations.

A novel dual excitation wavelength based bioaerosol sensor with multiple fluorescence bands called Spectral Intensity Bioaerosol Sensor (SIBS) has been assessed across five contrasting outdoor environments. The mean concentrations of total and fluorescent particles across the sites were highly variable being the highest at the agricultural farm (2.6 cm−3 and 0.48 cm−3, respectively) and the composting site (2.32 cm−3 and 0.46 cm−3, respectively) and the lowest at the dairy farm (1.03 cm−3 and 0.24 cm−3, respectively) and the sewage treatment works (1.03 cm−3 and 0.25 cm−3, respectively). In contrast, the number-weighted fluorescent fraction was lowest at the agricultural site (0.18) in comparison to the other sites indicating high variability in nature and magnitude of emissions from environmental sources. The fluorescence emissions data demonstrated that the spectra at different sites were multimodal with intensity differences largely at wavelengths located in secondary emission peaks for λex 280 and λex 370. This finding suggests differences in the molecular composition of emissions at these sites which can help to identify distinct fluorescence signature of different environmental sources. Overall this study demonstrated that SIBS provides additional spectral information compared to existing instruments and capability to resolve spectrally integrated signals from relevant biological fluorophores could improve selectivity and thus enhance discrimination and classification strategies for real-time characterisation of bioaerosols from environmental sources. However, detailed lab-based measurements in conjunction with real-world studies and improved numerical methods are required to optimise and validate these highly resolved spectral signatures with respect to the diverse atmospherically relevant biological fluorophores.

This article investigates the application of the “smart cities” and “urban climate justice” concepts to two urban initiatives based in Bristol, UK. Both ideas are increasingly popular in academic literature. Yet, little is known about their understanding by the practitioners such as policymakers, third sector organisations and citizens. Two case studies, a community-based energy efficiency initiative, and a local authority electric vehicle policy were critically reviewed using discourse analysis. The method helped to reveal the explicit, implied and obscured aims of the examined initiatives. Using discourse analysis, the researchers developed a heuristic which could improve traditional policy analysis approaches. The examination of case studies illustrates how practitioners understand the notions of “urban climate justice” and “smart cities” and whether their conceptualisations differ from those present in the academic literature. Finally, the paper offers methodological suggestions for embedding justice in “smart” initiatives at each stage of policy and project design.

Ecosystem services provide a framework for integrated assessment of the societal benefits provided by air, the largest ecosystem on the planet, which has been substantially overlooked in former management frameworks. Many attributes of air are ‘common’ in nature, use of the air or emissions into it providing private benefits with associated costs incurred by broader sectors of humanity. Though poorly captured by legal definitions, various benefits provided by air have been addressed by both common and statute law in the UK. There is a need to evolve the legal framework to afford a more integrated form of protection, though some of the essential building blocks for such protection are already established. Air has been found to provide a wide range of ecosystem services, many of which lie outside of contemporary markets. Case studies including the UK Air Quality Management framework, unintended impacts on the climate from wastewater treatment, the Montreal Protocol and control of fine airborne particulates highlight how an ecosystem approach could add far-sighted insight into development of policy and practice, averting many blind alleys of investment and delivering more multi-functional benefits. From this assessment, it is clear that the medium of air and the wider atmosphere have been substantially overlooked in terms of the benefits that they provide to society, but also their vulnerability to a range of pressures. Research gaps include the place of air in legal frameworks, legal mechanisms to protect this common property from damage, mechanisms to internalise the various values of services provided by air into markets, gap analysis in the policy environment, the means by which current management tools can be expanded to take a systemic approach, and practical tools development to support these innovations.

UK local air quality action planning has failed to remediate exceedances of air quality targets, particularly for nitrogen dioxide, which are widespread and persistent a decade after the first local action plans were drafted. This paper is relevant to a range of administrations charged with managing air quality. Using a literature review and local authority survey, it explores barriers to improving air quality, i.e. resource limitations, absence of local authority powers, and a lack of intra-governmental co-operation and inter-governmental co-ordination. It concludes that the causes of these inefficiencies are flawed subsidiarity and devolved responsibility decoupled from the powers necessary to implement required actions. Challenging opportunities to reconceptualise air quality action planning to protect public health are suggested.

The London Smog of 1952 and subsequent health effects brought about a public outcry which triggered the generation and implementation of the UK’s Clean Air Act of 1956. This act and subsequent updates has been credited with ending the ‘pea-souper’ conditions synonymous with industrial and domestic coal burning. In recent years in the UK, the emergence of major smog events in urban areas due to road transport emissions, the growing volume of epidemiological evidence on the health effects of air pollution, the threat of fines by the European Commission towards Member states and the high profile court cases taken forward by ClientEarth against HM Government1has once again raise the media and political profile of air pollution but the same public outcry that was evident after the London Smog has not been seen. This story is replicated around the world, where major air pollution incidents are not (yet) resulting in wide scale social action – and consequent political changes – to our approach to tackling air pollution.

© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Faculty of Public Health. All rights reserved. Background Air pollution exposure reduces life expectancy. Air pollution, deprivation and poor-health status combinations can create increased and disproportionate disease burdens. Problems and solutions are rarely considered in a broad public health context, but doing so can add value to air quality management efforts by reducing air pollution risks, impacts and inequalities. Methods An ecological study assessed small-area associations between air pollution (nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter), deprivation status and health outcomes in Wales, UK. Results Air pollution concentrations were highest in 'most' deprived areas. When considered separately, deprivation-health associations were stronger than air pollution-health associations. Considered simultaneously, air pollution added to deprivation-health associations; interactions between air pollution and deprivation modified and strengthened associations with all-cause and respiratory disease mortality, especially in 'most' deprived areas where most-vulnerable people lived and where health needs were greatest. Conclusion There is a need to reduce air pollution-related risks for all. However, it is also the case that greater health gains can result from considering local air pollution problems and solutions in the context of wider health-determinants and acting on a better understanding of relationships. Informed and co-ordinated air pollution mitigation and public health action in high deprivation and pollution areas can reduce risks and inequalities. To achieve this, greater public health integration and collaboration in local air quality management policy and practice is needed.

Ireland produces approximately 8 million broilers annually from 550 farms. In Irish systems, broiler litter is allowed to build up during the 37 day growing cycle, after which it is removed and used for either land spreading or mushroom compost production. It is important to monitor key indoor environmental parameters in order to optimize bird performance but also to comply with legislation such as the EU National Emissions Ceilings Directive. This study used Off Axis - Integrated Cavity Output Spectroscopy to evaluate the ammonia and water vapor content of air within an Irish broiler house. Three broiler cycles were measured at different times of the year to account for seasonal variation, covering spring, summer and autumn. This paper examines the difference in ammonia and water concentrations at 1 m, 2.5 m, and 4 m above floor level following the flow of air from the ground through to the exhaust fan. Autumn had the highest concentration of ammonia indoors throughout the cycle with an average of 1.23 ppm, while summer had the lowest concentration for the majority of the cycle, though increased by a spike towards the end with an average of 0.69 ppm.

Globally, poor air quality is the most significant environmental health concern. Across Europe, 400,000 deaths were attributed to air pollution in 2012, whilst in the UK over 50,000 deaths per year are due to a combination of gaseous and particulate matter air pollution. The deadline for achieving the EU limit value for NO2 was the 1st of January 2010, yet the UK remains non-compliant in 38 of 43 zones and agglomerations. As a consequence, in April 2015, the government was ordered by the UK Supreme Court to draw up new air quality plans to achieve the EU limit values in the shortest time possible. In response the UK government consulted on a draft national air quality plan, which estimated compliance with the EU Air Quality Directive by 2020 in all zones and agglomerations except London (compliance by 2025). The plan introduces the concept of a Clean Air Zone (CAZ) to address the non-compliant zones but overall has significant weaknesses in many zones and agglomerations and compliance by 2020 (and 2025 in London) is considered to be overly optimistic. The plan’s predictive models use vehicle emission factors that are not considered representative of actual driving conditions, and transparency in the data underlying vehicle fleet turnover calculations is lacking. The suitability of CAZ as a cornerstone of the plan is of particular concern. This contribution examines new evidence that challenges the robustness of the UK government’s air quality plan. If air quality within the UK is to improve within the shortest time possible, significant improvements in the analysis and proposed solutions will be required.

Air pollution control in South Africa has undergone a shift from the best practicable means to an Air Quality Management approach. Previous legislation was out-dated and did not achieve acceptable air quality. Further, policy and legislative developments necessitated a change, in accordance with overarching environmental legislation. The National Environment Management: Air Quality Act (AQA) heralded a new era, introducing international best practice, including the devolution of responsibility to local government and effects-based management. However, South African municipalities, as the incumbent local authorities, face several challenges in implementing AQA. Pollution control falls within the context of competing priorities for basic service provision and economic development in local government. Further challenges include the lack of political will, consultation and communication, the limited use of planning tools, and a non-strategic approach to Air Quality Management. The publication of a strategy document, the National Framework for Air Quality, provides guidance to all levels of government on implementation. Other developments include the publication of national ambient air quality standards, and listed activities and emission standards, development of an Air Quality Management Planning manual, and processes to issue atmospheric emission licenses. Several recommendations are included to address these challenges.

This paper describes a Delphi methodology to generate a number of broadly consensual low carbon scenarios for 2050. This approach to ‘creating’ the future, rather than predicting, is useful when dealing with profound and uncertain change over a long period of time and is therefore suited to carbon management. The methodology is described, and the first stage of the consultation process is discussed with reference to its application in the UK city region of Bristol. Findings from the first round have resulted in the identification of seven working scenarios and patterns in the responses of individuals from different backgrounds, suggesting that strong world-views and agendas are present within groups. Subsequent rounds of a questionnaire and a backcasting workshop will refine these working scenarios and identify pathways to achieve them.

The UK’s Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) commences with a Review and Assessment which may lead to the declaration of an Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) where an exceedence of the Air Quality Objectives is confi rmed. A declaration initiates the development of Air Quality Action Plan (AQAP) intended to provide solutions to the identifi ed problems. There is no doubt that the LAQM framework has delivered a clear picture of elevated air pollution at specifi c locations in the UK, defi ned in temporal and spatial scales. However, the evidence to date suggests that delivering solutions to air quality problems is much more problematic, and has not been achieved at the rate expected when the framework was introduced in 1997. Despite the national policy intention and direction provided through the framework, the probability of achieving the traffi c-related Air Quality Objectives by the set dates in the UK Regulations is uncertain. Using evidence from several studies undertaken by the authors, this paper considers the implication of distinct policy disconnects which are present in the LAQM process. The key conclusion implies transition from procedural compliance with the diagnostic process of LAQM towards a more holistic approach that will require new means of internal communication and co-operation and external consultation at the local and central government level and the ability to confront political and economic vested interest.

In this paper the necessity for effective joint working arrangements between Environmental Health Officers and Transport Planners is demonstrated as a fundamental prerequisite for successful management of traffic-related air quality in English local government areas. Current approach to joint working and collaboration between the officers was examined based on the evidence from a three-year study which involved questionnaire surveys and case study interviews. The findings show that despite good administrative devolution and policy integration, the chance of improving specific local air quality situations through the Local Transport Planning process is dependent on other overriding factors which influence the capabilities of the authorities to integrate policies across departments and tiers of governments. Implicit in these findings is the need for a shared paradigm of continuous engagement by all the policy actors and stakeholders if proper integration and the possibility of tangible results in future pol...

Because of the lack of effective methodology, the biological effects of environmental endotoxin have not been assessed. Here we have collected and measured airborne endotoxin at different locations around composting sites. Increased endotoxin concentrations were observed close to composting activities and also at nearby boundary areas. Analysis of proinflammatory effects of the environmental endotoxin on interleukin (IL)-8 and IL-6 release from human 0562 pharyngeal epithelial and MM6 monocytic cell cultures showed an association between endotoxin level and cytokine induction. The cytolcine-inducing effect of bioaerosol extracts was inhibited by polymyxin B, indicating that endotoxin was the cause of cytokine responses we found. The environmental endotoxin was also more active for stimulating cytokines in airway epithelial cells than commercially purified Escherichia coli endotoxin. Our results suggest that these in vitro inflammatory cell models may contribute to the assessment of health impacts of environmental endotoxin. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2011;30:602-606. (C) 2011 SETAC

The second round of the Local Transport Plan (LTP2) process in England presents unique challenges and opportunities for integrating Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) within current transport planning policy. Using content analysis of LTP2 documents from nine English authorities, and results from a questionnaire survey of local government officers undertaken in late 2007, this paper charts the changes in the integration of air quality management within the transport planning process since 1997. While substantial improvements in policy integration were observed within the selected case studies, the paper demonstrates that such improvements are often constrained by institutional complexities that create implementation gaps between national objectives and local decision-making outcomes.

Information on the particle size distribution of bioaerosols emitted from open air composting operations is valuable in evaluating potential health impacts and is a requirement for improved dispersion simulation modelling. The membrane filter method was used to study the particle size distribution of Aspergillus fumigatus spores in air 50 m downwind of a green waste compost screening operation at a commercial facility. The highest concentrations (approximately 8 x 10(4) CFU m(-3)) of culturable spores were found on filters with pore diameters in the range 1-2 mu m which suggests that the majority of spores are emitted as single cells. The findings were compared to published data collected using an Andersen sampler. Results were significantly correlated (p < 0.01) indicating that the two methods are directly comparable across all particles sizes for Aspergillus spores. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This paper considers the evolution of attempts to control and manage air pollution, principally but not exclusively focussing upon the challenge of managing air pollution in urban environments. The development and implementation of a range of air pollution control measures are considered. Initially the measures implemented primarily addressed point sources, a small number of fuel types and a limited number of pollutants. The adequacy of such a source-control approach is assessed within the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate. An assessment of air quality management in the United Kingdom over a 50-year timeframe exemplifies the range of issues and challenges in contemporary air quality management. The need for new approaches is explored and the development and implementation of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated.

© 2015 WIT Press. In 2013, the UK exceeded the EU limit value for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) annual mean at 31 of its 43 zones and agglomerations. Current government predictions are that full compliance will not be achieved until after 2030, with 65% zones still expected to be exceeding in 2020. In February 2014, the European Commission launched legal proceedings against the UK for its failure to cut excessive levels of NO2. However, there is an increasing onus on local authorities to manage air pollution locally and a legal threat in the Localism Act 2011 that may make them liable for any EU fines. This research has examined Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) reports and monitored concentrations of NO2 over the last 14 years for all local authorities with exceedances due to road traffic and, as previously reported to this conference series, found that there is insufficient appropriate data available to evaluate the LAQM process as a whole on this basis. Instead, six case study local authorities, for which sufficient data were available, were individually evaluated to determine whether any action plan measures could be associated with changes in local NO2 concentrations. This paper describes the methodology and findings with respect to the implementation of action plan measures, using Bristol City Council as an example. It examines some of the challenges of quantifying air quality impacts and attributing changes to implementation of measures, and makes recommendations for improvements to UK air quality management.

Air quality is managed in Great Britain via an effects-based, risk management process designed to provide a dynamic solution to public health issues associated with elevated concentrations of seven specified air pollutants. This paper is concerned with an examination and evaluation of the process of Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) in Great Britain from the late 1980s to date as a risk management process. The statutory basis of LAQM process is provided by the Environment Act 1995. The Act provides a framework in which national and local actions are required to identify and remediate areas of poor air quality. Within this framework, the implementation of the process at national and local levels is considered, leading to an identification and assessment of risks in the formulation and implementation of air quality management policy and practice. Local Authorities began the process of Review and Assessment in 1999 and the first round of the process concluded in 2001. Following this, some 129 Local Authorities declared one or more Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs). The Review and Assessment elements of the framework were subjected to an evaluation in 2001 and the essential elements of it were confirmed as fit for purpose. The evaluation led to a confirmation of the process of LAQM but also a simplification based on the experience of Round 1. Now, a two step process is required comprising of an Updating and Screening Assessment and, where a risk of exceeding an Air Quality Objective (AQO) is identified, a Detailed Assessment follows. The Government has identified a time scale for Review and Assessment through to 2010 and also introduced the requirement of a regular Progress Report in order that a Local Authority is able to address routine matters of air quality management. The risks inherent in epidemiological or scientific uncertainty are factored into the LAQM process at an early stage of the process and, by identifying the risks and subjecting them to regular review, the process provides a ‘level playing field’ across spatial and temporal scales. Whilst the process of LAQM described in this paper has been developed for Great Britain, the generic elements of the process are applicable to other countries challenged by air pollution problems which require both national and local action to resolve them.