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• Standard medical and behavioral treatment for encopresis is not always effective. • Some children resist toilet training due to fear of defecation outside a diaper. • A diaper fading protocol was used to train four children with toilet refusal. • The protocol flexibly adapted to individual patient needs. Childhood constipation and painful defecation is common, affecting 68% to 86% of children. Over 90% withhold stool, some only defecating in a diaper. Behavioral therapy is effective for encopresis, but there is minimal research on treating toilet avoidance. This study investigates a novel protocol to eliminate diapers in children with toilet avoidance. A diaper fading protocol was used with four children with toilet avoidance. Children were instructed to defecate in the bathroom, moving progressively closer to the toilet until they eventually sat on the toilet with the diaper. As needed, diapers were then faded by cutting increasingly wider slits in the base of the diaper so that stool could pass into the toilet. The cut widened until the diaper was eliminated entirely. Four children (three boys, average 5.22 years old) successfully completed toilet training using the diaper fading protocol in an average of 9.75 sessions. Delivery of treatment via telehealth was shown to be effective. The diaper fading protocol effectively and flexibly assisted toilet training in four children with stool withholding and toileting avoidance. Future work should investigate whether caregivers can utilize the protocol without ongoing support, or on a consultation basis only, to reduce the burden on health care workers with long waitlists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Elimination disorder occurs in children over the age of normal toileting who continue to have an inability to control urination or feces, either during the day, at night, or both. Paediatric elimination disorders are not well understood by parents, teachers, medical professionals, mental health practitioners, and researchers. Hence, this study aimed to assess the magnitude of elimination disorder and associated factors among children and Adolescents aged 5–14 years old at Wolaita Sodo University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, South Ethiopia, in 2022. Method A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from September 22 to November 22, 2022, at Wolaita Sodo University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. A systematic random sampling technique was employed to select 423 study subjects. The data were gathered using a structured, face-to-face interviewer-administered questionnaire. The development of the symptom score for dysfunctional elimination syndrome of Vancouver questionnaires was used to screen for elimination disorders. Logistic regression model was used to determine the association between the outcome and independent variables. A 95% CI and Odds ratio with corresponding p-value

Background: Elimination disorder occurs in children over the age of normal toileting who continue to have an inability to control urination or feces, either during the day, at night, or both. Paediatric elimination disorders are not well understood by parents, teachers, medical professionals, mental health practitioners, and researchers. Hence, this study aimed to assess the magnitude of elimination disorder and associated factors among children and Adolescents aged 5–14 years old at Wolaita Sodo University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, South Ethiopia, in 2022. Method: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from September 22 to November 22, 2022, at Wolaita Sodo University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. A systematic random sampling technique was employed to select 423 study subjects. The data were gathered using a structured, face-to-face interviewer-administered questionnaire. The development of the symptom score for dysfunctional elimination syndrome of Vancouver questionnaires was used to screen for elimination disorders. Logistic regression model was used to determine the association between the outcome and independent variables. A 95% CI and Odds ratio with corresponding p-value < 0.05 were used to determine the predictors of the outcome variable. Result: The overall magnitude of elimination disorder among children and Adolescents age 5–14 in this study was (n 70, 16.8%); in boys (n 47, 17.3%) and girls (n 23, 15.75%). The prevalence of enuresis was (n 64, 15.3%), encopresis (n 15, 3.6%), both enuresis and encopresis, or combined elimination disorder (n 9, 2.2%). Age 9–11 years (AOR = 3.2, 95%CI:1.09, 9.43), family size four and above (AOR = 3.4, 95%CI:1.78, 6.56), family history of elimination disorder (AOR = 3.9, 95%CI:2.12, 7.45), emotional problem (AOR = 2.2, 95%CI:1.18, 4.05), hyperactive problem (AOR = 3.8, 95%CI:1.83, 7.83), low toilet training skills (AOR = 5.9, 95%CI:2.61, 13.33), bad parenting practices, were poor supervision (AOR = 4.4, 95%CI 1.29, 14.69) were significantly associated with elimination disorder. Conclusion and recommendation: In this study, approximately one in five children and adolescents had an elimination disorder. Younger age, family size four and above, positive family history of elimination disorder, presence of emotional and hyperactive problems, bad parenting practices, and low toilet training skills were factors associated with elimination disorders. Therefore, preventative, etiological, and therapeutic measure, early toilet training, supportive parenting practices, screening for children's and adolescents' behavioral problems, and elimination disorders need attention to reduce the effect of the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objectives Functional retentive overflow incontinence (retentive FI) is the most common cause of fecal soiling in children. Based on the clinical experiences, the treatment of retentive FI in patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders was accelerated when Risperidone was used as treatment for their psychiatric comorbidities; therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of risperidone in the treatment of retentive FI in children and adolescents. Methods In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 140 patients aged 4–16 years eligible for the study were randomized into two groups, receiving either 0.25–0.5 mg of Risperidone syrup (n = 70) or maltodextrin syrup (placebo group, n = 70) every 12 h daily for 12 weeks. Sociodemographic data, including age, sex, weight, height, BMI, BMI z-score, and socioeconomic status, was recorded, and the number of nocturnal FI, diurnal FI, and painful defecations was measured. Results 136 participants (69 on Risperidone and 67 on placebo) were included in the study. Mean age of participants in the intervention and placebo groups were 7.2 ± 2.4 years and 8.0 ± 3.1 years, respectively. The mean number of nocturnal FI (Ptrend=0.39) and diurnal FI (Ptrend=0.48) in patients without psychiatric comorbidities, and the number of painful defecations for participants with and without psychiatric comorbidities (P = 0.49, P = 0.47, respectively) were not significantly different between the groups, but a significant effect was observed in diurnal FI after Risperidone treatment in patients with psychiatric comorbidities (P

Objectives: Functional retentive overflow incontinence (retentive FI) is the most common cause of fecal soiling in children. Based on the clinical experiences, the treatment of retentive FI in patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders was accelerated when Risperidone was used as treatment for their psychiatric comorbidities; therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of risperidone in the treatment of retentive FI in children and adolescents. Methods: In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 140 patients aged 4–16 years eligible for the study were randomized into two groups, receiving either 0.25–0.5 mg of Risperidone syrup (n = 70) or maltodextrin syrup (placebo group, n = 70) every 12 h daily for 12 weeks. Sociodemographic data, including age, sex, weight, height, BMI, BMI z-score, and socioeconomic status, was recorded, and the number of nocturnal FI, diurnal FI, and painful defecations was measured. Results: 136 participants (69 on Risperidone and 67 on placebo) were included in the study. Mean age of participants in the intervention and placebo groups were 7.2 ± 2.4 years and 8.0 ± 3.1 years, respectively. The mean number of nocturnal FI (Ptrend=0.39) and diurnal FI (Ptrend=0.48) in patients without psychiatric comorbidities, and the number of painful defecations for participants with and without psychiatric comorbidities (P = 0.49, P = 0.47, respectively) were not significantly different between the groups, but a significant effect was observed in diurnal FI after Risperidone treatment in patients with psychiatric comorbidities (P < 0.001). Conclusion: Risperidone, when used along with other non-pharmacological interventions, may be helpful in treating FI in pediatric patients with psychiatric comorbidities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The international literature has long established the importance of health issues presented by children entrusted to Child Protection and Welfare Service (Aide Sociale à l'Enfance –ASE, in France). This study examined the health of children entrusted to the ASE in Vendée (a French administrative region) in order to better understand and address their health needs. A retrospective study of all children (623 out of 920) aged 0–18 years placed in foster care or an institution during 2019 was carried out. The data collection was based on the information in the medical form completed by the doctor during the annual health check. More than one quarter of the children had a written or spoken language disorder, 32% of children did not have a normal body mass index for their age, 10% of children suffered from enuresis, 4% from encopresis, and sleep disorders were observed in 29% of the study population. Furthermore, 51% of the children expressed psychological distress by internalizing or externalizing it, and 6% of children over 6 years of age had already run away or put themselves in danger. The results of our study are congruent with the international literature and confirm that children and adolescents in out-of-home care (foster care, residential care) have significantly higher healthcare needs than their peers. The findings also suggest several areas for improving the healthcare of children and adolescents entrusted to the care of the child protection and welfare services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with constipation and encopresis are often treated with medication and behavioral approaches. When constipation persists, surgical interventions such as antegrade continence enema (ACE) procedures are considered. Many children benefit from these procedures; however, some children continue to have incontinence, experience complications, or discontinue the use of the ACE stoma. There is some evidence in the literature to indicate that psychosocial factors can have an impact on ACE outcomes; however, standardized biopsychosocial guidelines related to ACE candidacy and surgery do not currently exist. Purpose: The purpose of this review is to summarize the research to date on psychosocial factors related to ACE treatment outcomes and complications. Identifying what is known and what limitations remain can support future research to inform development of guidelines for pre‐procedure evaluations. Psychosocial pre‐procedure evaluations could help to inform eligibility for the procedure as well as interventions to enhance outcomes for children at increased risk for poor outcomes or complications from ACE. Age, psychiatric symptoms, and adherence to the ACE flush regimen were some of the factors identified in the literature as impacting ACE outcomes; however, there is limited research in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Functional fecal incontinence or encopresis is a condition commonly seen in children, and as such, pediatricians and health care providers who care for children should be familiar with this diagnosis. Encopresis refers to the passage or leakage of feces in inappropriate settings. There is a high prevalence of associated behavioral symptoms in children who have encopresis. Treatment involves patient and family education, behavioral strategies for stool regulation, disimpaction of stool in children who have constipation, and long-term maintenance of regular bowel habits. This discussion reviews the definition, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and treatment of children who have encopresis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Elimination disorders are highly prevalent in childhood and often associated with clinically relevant comorbid psychological disorders. The aim of this study is to determine if, and to what extent, children with elimination disorders show higher internalizing and externalizing problems than their healthy peers. Methods: A multistep literature search was performed from database inception until May 1st, 2022. PRISMA/MOOSE‐compliant systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42022303555) were used to identify studies reporting on internalizing and/or externalizing symptoms in children with an elimination disorder and a healthy control (HC) group. First, a systematic review was provided. Second, where data allowed for it, a quantitative meta‐analysis with random effects model was conducted to analyze the differences between the elimination disorder and the HC groups for internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Effect size was standardized mean difference. Meta‐regression analyses were conducted to examine the effect of sex, age, and study quality. Funnel plots were used to detect a publication bias. Where found, the trim and fill method was used to correct it. Results: 36 articles were included, 32 of them reporting on enuresis (n = 3244; mean age = 9.4; SD = 3.4; 43.84% female) and 7 of them on encopresis (n = 214; mean age = 8.6; SD = 2.3; 36.24% female). Children with an elimination disorder presented significantly lower self‐concept (ES:0.42; 95%CI [0.08; 9.76]; p = 0.017) and higher symptom scores for thought problems (ES:−0.26; 95%CI: −0.43;−0.09]; p = 0.003), externalizing symptoms (ES: −0.20; 95%CI [−0.37;−0.03]; p = 0.020), attention problems (ES:−0.37; 95%CI [−0.51;−0.22]; p = 0.0001), aggressive behavior (ES:−0.33; 95%CI [−0.62;−0.04]; p = 0.025) and social problems (ES:−0.39; 95%CI [−0.58;−0.21]; p = 0.0001). Significant publication biases were found across several of the studied domains. No significant effect of sex, age or quality of the study score was found. Conclusions: Children with an elimination disorder may have significant internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as impaired self‐concept. It is recommendable to screen for them in children with enuresis or encopresis and provide appropriate interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to research the most appropriate time to begin toilet training is after child’s second birthday when he reaches control of pelvis floor and anal sphincter. However, a child has to first master certain skills which he will need for toilet training and that each child masters in its own time. That is also the reason why medical classifications define elimination disorder after 4th and 5th year of age. In international classification system DSM 5 elimination disorders are identified in two categories: enuresis and encopresis (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). When there are negative influences of enuresis or encopresis present children are usually referred to psychologists or after difficulties are revealed during a regular developmental examination. Overview of literature shows that behavioral therapy is one of the most effective treatments and some specific techniques will be presented in this article.

Abstract Background Elimination disorders are highly prevalent in childhood and often associated with clinically relevant comorbid psychological disorders. The aim of this study is to determine if, and to what extent, children with elimination disorders show higher internalizing and externalizing problems than their healthy peers. Methods A multistep literature search was performed from database inception until May 1st, 2022. PRISMA/MOOSE‐compliant systematic review (PROSPERO: CRD42022303555) were used to identify studies reporting on internalizing and/or externalizing symptoms in children with an elimination disorder and a healthy control (HC) group. First, a systematic review was provided. Second, where data allowed for it, a quantitative meta‐analysis with random effects model was conducted to analyze the differences between the elimination disorder and the HC groups for internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Effect size was standardized mean difference. Meta‐regression analyses were conducted to examine the effect of sex, age, and study quality. Funnel plots were used to detect a publication bias. Where found, the trim and fill method was used to correct it. Results 36 articles were included, 32 of them reporting on enuresis (n = 3244; mean age = 9.4; SD = 3.4; 43.84% female) and 7 of them on encopresis (n = 214; mean age = 8.6; SD = 2.3; 36.24% female). Children with an elimination disorder presented significantly lower self‐concept (ES:0.42; 95%CI [0.08; 9.76]; p = 0.017) and higher symptom scores for thought problems (ES:−0.26; 95%CI: −0.43;−0.09]; p = 0.003), externalizing symptoms (ES: −0.20; 95%CI [−0.37;−0.03]; p = 0.020), attention problems (ES:−0.37; 95%CI [−0.51;−0.22]; p = 0.0001), aggressive behavior (ES:−0.33; 95%CI [−0.62;−0.04]; p = 0.025) and social problems (ES:−0.39; 95%CI [−0.58;−0.21]; p = 0.0001). Significant publication biases were found across several of the studied domains. No significant effect of sex, age or quality of the study score was found. Conclusions Children with an elimination disorder may have significant internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as impaired self‐concept. It is recommendable to screen for them in children with enuresis or encopresis and provide appropriate interventions.

Elimination disorders are common in children, and numerous psychosocial treatments for pediatric enuresis and encopresis are available to guide clinicians. However, only five cases of functional elimination disorders in adults are published to date, all of which involve severe comorbid psychopathology, and no treatment guidelines for adult elimination disorders exist. This case report presents, to our knowledge, the first documented case of functional elimination disorder in an otherwise healthy, high-functioning adult. "Ben" is a 20-year-old male who sought treatment for chronic enuresis and encopresis, as well as difficulties with procrastination of schoolwork. Ben engaged in 21 weeks of cognitive behavioral therapy and reported substantial decreases in elimination disorder symptoms. However, improvements fluctuated throughout treatment and remained present at mild levels at 3-month follow-up. This report outlines the cognitive behavioral interventions applied throughout this treatment, which consisted of pediatric elimination disorder interventions adapted for an adult with additional cognitive behavioral tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Constipation is a common problem in children. Although most children respond to conventional treatment, symptoms persist in a minority. For children with refractory constipation, anorectal and colonic manometry testing can identify a rectal evacuation disorder or colonic motility disorder and guide subsequent management. Novel medications used in adults with constipation are beginning to be used in children, with promising results. Biofeedback therapy and anal sphincter botulinum toxin injection can be considered for children with a rectal evacuation disorder. Surgical management of constipation includes the use of antegrade continence enemas, sacral nerve stimulation, and colonic resection.

Functional fecal incontinence or encopresis is a condition commonly seen in children, and as such, pediatricians and health care providers who care for children should be familiar with this diagnosis. Encopresis refers to the passage or leakage of feces in inappropriate settings. There is a high prevalence of associated behavioral symptoms in children who have encopresis. Treatment involves patient and family education, behavioral strategies for stool regulation, disimpaction of stool in children who have constipation, and long-term maintenance of regular bowel habits. This discussion reviews the definition, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and treatment of children who have encopresis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• What is currently known about this topic? Patients with organic chronic constipation and fecal incontinence (CCFI) have improved Quality of Life (QoL) following appendicostomy or cecostomy creation and antegrade colonic enema (ACE) therapy. • What new information is contained in this article? Patients with functional CCFI have improved QoL following cecostomy creation and ACE therapy, and the QoL improvements are comparable to patients with refractory CCFI due to an organic cause. We compared patient- and family-reported overall and stool-related quality of life (QoL) before and after an antegrade continence enema (ACE) procedure (cecostomy tube insertion) for refractory chronic constipation or fecal incontinence (CCFI). We hypothesized that patients with functional diagnoses experience similar improvements in QoL compared to those with organic diagnoses. This is a cross-sectional study of patients undergoing cecostomy tube insertion for CCFI at a tertiary pediatric hospital from 2012 to 2019. Patients and/or primary caregivers completed validated stooling and overall QoL surveys based on three time points: before surgery, three months after surgery, and at the time of survey / date of last follow-up. Repeated measures analyses compared scores over time between subjects and within the diagnostic groups. The response rate was 65% (22/34 patients, 12 organic and 10 functional diagnoses). Mean age was 8.3 years and 32% of the participants were female. Organic diagnoses were: spina bifida (6), anorectal malformation (5), and Hirschsprung Disease (1). There was substantial improvement in stool-related and overall QoL at three months post-ACE procedure (both p<0.001) for all patients; both scores continued to improve significantly until the date of last follow-up (median 4.1 years, IQR 2.3–5.6, p<0.001). There was no statistically significant difference in scores between patients with organic and functional diagnoses. Caregivers perceive a significant, sustainable improvement in stooling habits and QoL following ACE therapy. The improvement is comparable between patients with a functional diagnosis and those with an underlying organic reason for their CCFI. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An appendicostomy (ACE) is a surgical option for antegrade enemas in children with severe constipation and/or fecal incontinence who have failed medical management. In 2019, we initiated an expedited post-operative protocol and sought to examine our short-term outcomes compared with our historical cohort. A retrospective review was performed of all children undergoing ACE between 2017 and 2020. Children were excluded if they underwent an associated procedure (e.g. colon resection). Patients were divided into two cohorts: historical cohort (2017–2018, Group A) and the expedited protocol (2019 to present, Group B). The primary outcome was length of stay. 30 patients met inclusion (Group A = 16, Group B = 14). The most common indications for ACE were constipation (50%) and constipation or fecal incontinence associated with anorectal malformation (43%). Group B experienced a decreased length of stay (1 vs 3 days, P = 0.001) without differences in 30-day surgical site infection (7.1% vs 18.8%, p = 0.61) or unplanned visit (15.4% vs 18.8%, p = 1.0). Group B had a higher prevalence of MiniACE® button placed through the appendix vs. Malone (42.8% vs 12.5%, p = 0.10). Our expedited post-op protocol decreased length of stay without other significant adverse clinical sequelae. Retrospective Comparative Study, Level III. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, due to the increasing prevalence of psychiatric diseases, the use of antipsychotic drugs has expanded. One of the proven side effects of these drugs is incontinence. Treatment of this complication improves the quality of life in these patients, increases self-confidence, and betters cope with their psychiatric illness. The exact mechanism of this side effect is not fully understood, but various methods have been used experimentally to deal with it. Strategies such as behavior therapy, discontinuation or change of drugs, reducing the dose of drugs, and adding drugs with less incontinence have been used. Each of these methods and studies has different results that need to be summarized to make optimal use of them. Since most of these reports are case reports with a low statistical population, our study has systematically reviewed these studies to find a comprehensive model to deal with this complication.

This article describes the course of a psychotherapy with a depressed encopretic boy, using a psychoanalytic approach. The therapy was administered in a public welfare clinic in Israel. Based on an understanding of how the boy's developmental needs had been neglected, an appropriate intervention programme was constructed and implemented. The principal insights determining the course pursued by the psychotherapist included the understanding acquired of the dysfunction and absences within the mother-child relationship during the boy's early years, and the need for the therapist to provide corrective and containing maternal emotional experiences, together with insight regarding the repercussions on the boy's emotional life. Additional understanding was gained about the role of the boy's encopresis, which comprised a symptom, and seemed to be a response to the repressed, unmodulated regressive anger towards the internal maternal figure, owing to the parents' difficulties in meeting the boy's primary developmental needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: Functional constipation is a common childhood problem, with a prevalence of approximately 3% worldwide. The aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 3350 and lactulose in the treatment of pediatric functional constipation. Methods: A total of 100 subjects with functional constipation were enrolled and centrally randomized to receive PEG 3350 (0.7–1.5 mg/kg/day) or lactulose (0.7–2.0 g/kg/day). Results: There was a significant increase in median (min, max) stool frequency within 1 week in the PEG 3350 group as compared to the lactulose group (1 [0, 3] to 8 [3, 39] vs. 1 [0, 3] to 7 [1, 17]) (p-value < 0.01). The trend was maintained at week 2, week 3 (p-value < 0.01), and week 4 (p-value = 0.05) with the PEG 3350 group reporting higher weekly median stool frequency than the lactulose group. The PEG group reported significant reduction in painful bowel movements from 68.8% subjects at baseline to 43.8% at the end of first week, whereas the lactulose group reported an increase from 48.9% to 73.3% (p-value = 0.05). Other parameters of constipation, i.e. straining, large diameter stool, and large fecal mass as reported subjectively by parents, significantly decreased from baseline to the end of the study in the PEG 3350 arm compared to those in the lactulose arm. At the end of week 4, there was a statistically significant reduction in all the ROME IV–defined criteria between the two groups. Conclusion: This study proved that the PEG 3350 treatment group had early symptom relief and significant improvement compared to the lactulose group in pediatric functional constipation. Trial registration: Clinical Trials Registry India (CTRI/2018/01/011061) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bladder and bowel dysfunction (BBD) is a common yet underdiagnosed paediatric entity that describes lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) accompanied by abnormal bowel patterns manifested as constipation and/or encopresis. LUTS usually manifest as urgency, urinary frequency, incontinence, and urinary tract infections (UTI). Despite increasing recognition of BBD as a risk factor for long-term urinary tract problems including recurrent UTI, vesicoureteral reflux, and renal scarring, the mechanisms underlying BBD have been unclear, and treatment remains empirical. We investigated how constipation affects the lower urinary tract function using a juvenile murine model of functional constipation. Following four days of functional constipation, animals developed LUTS including urinary frequency and detrusor overactivity evaluated by awake cystometry. Physiological examination of detrusor function in vitro using isolated bladder strips, demonstrated a significant increase in spontaneous contractions without affecting contractile force in response to electrical field stimulation, carbachol, and KCl. A significant upregulation of serotonin receptors, Htr2a and Htr2c, was observed in the bladders from mice with constipation, paralleled with augmented spontaneous contractions after pre-incubation of the bladder strips with 0.5 µM of serotonin. These results suggest that constipation induced detrusor overactivity and increased excitatory serotonin receptor activation in the urinary bladder, which contributes to the development of BBD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enuresis and encopresis can be stressful for children and parents. We investigated the comorbid psychiatric disorders and the emotional and behavioral symptoms associated with elimination disorders. A total of 97 children and adolescents (aged 4–17 years) with an elimination disorder participated in this study. The elimination disorder group consisted of three subgroups: 50 subjects with enuresis nocturna, 26 with encopresis, and 21 subjects with enuresis + encopresis. The control group with no elimination disorder comprised 50 healthy subjects. All children were interviewed by a child and adolescent psychiatrist. Comorbid psychiatric disorders were assessed using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). Parents completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The most common diagnosis was attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, followed by oppositional defiant disorder. The highest rate of psychiatric comorbidity was observed in the enuresis + encopresis subgroup, followed by the enuresis nocturna and encopresis subgroups. All the subgroups had higher total difficulties scores than the control group. Screening for psychiatric disorders should be performed for all children with incontinence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PURPOSE: Currently, there is a paucity of studies on the prevalence of Elimination Disorders among Iranian children and adolescents. Due to the ongoing need to monitor the health status of these children and adolescents, the present study aims to investigate the prevalence of Elimination Disorders and comorbid disorders in Iranian children and adolescents. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 29,781 children and adolescents age 6 to 18 years old were selected and studied from all the provinces in Iran. The sampling was carried out by employing a multistage cluster sampling method, and several clinical psychologists using semi-structured interviews collected the data. Furthermore, clinical psychologists collected demographic information (including information about gender, age, place of residence, education level, and parental education level). The collected data were analyzed using SPSS version 20. RESULTS: Generally, the prevalence of Elimination Disorders was found to be 5.4% covering both enuresis (p = 5.4, 95% CI = 5.1–5.7) and encopresis (p = 0.13, 95% CI = 0.09–0.2). The total prevalence of comorbid disorders was 38%, and among the comorbid disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (p = 11, 95% CI = 9.5–12.7) and Separation Anxiety (p = 10.6, 95% CI = 9.1–12.2) were the most prevalent. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of Elimination Disorders in Iranian children and adolescents is moderate compared to similar studies elsewhere. As for comorbid disorders, ADHD and Separation Anxiety were found to be the most prevalent disorders. Since Elimination Disorders coexist with psychiatric disorders in children, further studies of these comorbidities may give better insight into the treatment and prognosis of Elimination Disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most striking examples of decompensation of oppositional-defiant disorder among children is encopresis (protest or infantile). Most often it represents a primitive hysterical reaction connected with its “conditional desirability” as a mean of liberation from any difficult situation for the child, which requires a fundamentally different approach in therapy. In encopresis treatment of an inorganic nature as well as other forms of behavioural, neurotic or psychosomatic protest there are rational, behavioural, family, play and suggestive therapy used together or separately. However, these methods are more effective in combination with emotional-stress psychotherapy used to a certain degree as early as possible.

Although encopresis is a rare disorder that is virtually absent by 16 years of age in children who show normal cognitive function, this condition creates abundant distress for patients and their families. There is a strong relation between encopresis and enuresis, and they share some of the same etiologies and treatment, but they differ in other ways. Information regarding pharmacologic treatment of encopresis remains very limited, and all studies are case reports. Herein, I described a boy with persistent adolescent encopresis and enuresis who was treated principally with imipramine. At the end of our observation period, we were pleased to note a very favorable response regarding encopresis, and a complete response regarding enuresis. We thus wish to supplement the currently available literature in this area with this novel result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]