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Dans un modèle d’organisation du sport français fortement soutenu et contrôlé par l’État et plus largement par la sphère publique, la FFT délégataire d’une mission de service public fait à première vue figure d’exception. Elle a en effet construit son modèle économique et d’organisation autour d’un évènement très lucratif : Roland Garros (RG). Au premier abord, il semble qu’elle ait fondé un développement autonome – à défaut d’être indépendant – via un modèle d’affaire privé singulier lui permettant rapidement de dépendre faiblement de l’État. Cependant, nous montrons que le soutien de la sphère publique a aussi créé en parallèle un régime de dépendances multiples qui a pu soit favoriser soit limiter le développement de la FFT et de ses clubs. Ce constat se retrouve dans deux grandes phases de son développement : la « révolution Chatrier » (1968–1992) et la « période de la maturité » (1993–2020). Ces relations ont entraîné une gouvernance de compromis pour ancrer une stratégie de développement ayant pour objet d’optimiser et de légitimer les soutiens publics. Elles ont aussi été orientées au profit des dirigeants en place. Ces relations ont pu prendre plusieurs formes : réseaux politiques, aides directes et indirectes aux différents niveaux de la pyramide fédérale, influences sur le cadre de gouvernance organisationnelle. Il sera dès lors discuté de ce que révèlent les stratégies d’autonomisation mais aussi d’acceptation et de gestion des dépendances par rapport à la sphère publique : les ambiguïtés et les jeux politiques internes autour de l’image et des passions et de l’écosystème autour du tennis français et de RG dont les dirigeants ont joué pour se maintenir au pouvoir ; les paradoxes entre gestion d’une mission de service public et hyper-commercialisation questionnant la légitimité des aides publiques ; et enfin, la difficulté de transformer et de faire évoluer le modèle gouvernance et la capacité à s’auto-réformer compte tenu des dépendances créées.

International audience; This paper deals with the economic and financial situation of 76 French federations over the 2012–2017 period through a factor analysis (principal component analysis and exploratory factor analysis). The results allow to develop a framework for analyzing the economic and financial situation of sporting federations based on three dimensions, each of them assessed by a single score: public fund dependence; financial balance and attraction of financial resources; services investment. The cases of karate and wrestling federations are used to highlight the interest of this framework to sum up significant amount of information and to easily compare their degree of economic and financial performance. The results also allow to identify different vectors of financial vulnerability than the public fund dependence (direct and indirect subsidies granted by the Ministry of Sports). Finally, correlational analysis between variables sheds on light some results. They notably deal with the allocation of resources of the Ministry of Sports to support the federations and the inefficient strategy for allocating ministerial resources to the less needy organisations.; Cet article s’intéresse à la situation économique et financière de 76 fédérations françaises sur la période 2012–2017 à travers une analyse factorielle (analyse en composantes principales puis analyse factorielle exploratoire). Les résultats permettent d’établir un cadre d’analyse systémique de la situation économique et financière des fédérations sportives. Il repose sur trois dimensions évaluées chacune par un score unique : dépendance en ressources publiques ; budget financier et attraction de ressources financières ; investissement dans les services. L’exemple des fédérations de karaté et de lutte illustre l’intérêt de ce cadre pour synthétiser un volume important d’informations et comparer facilement leurs niveaux de performance économique et financière. Les résultats permettent, par ailleurs, d’identifier des vecteurs de vulnérabilités financières qui ne sont pas forcément liés à la dépendance envers les subventions directes et indirectes accordées par le ministère des Sports. L’analyse des corrélations entre les variables a enfin mis à jour certains résultats. Ces derniers sont notamment liés à la politique ministérielle de soutien aux fédérations et l’inefficiente stratégie d’allocation des ressources ministérielles, principalement orientée vers les organisations qui en ont le moins besoin.

Research question: This study examines the conditions and configurations that particularly influence International Federations’ (IFs) commercialisation. Research method: Crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis (csQCA) is used to determine the conditions that are related to an IFs’ commercialisation. Sixteen interviews were conducted in six Olympic IFs and one international sport umbrella organisation. Results and findings: The findings reveal a variety of high and low commercialisation configurations. Specialisation is a key condition in both high and low commercialisation, and social media engagement is central in high commercialisation. Strategic planning and low accountability have low degrees of overlap with high commercialisation outcomes. With 13 out of 22 IFs achieving high levels of commercialisation, the findings demonstrate that IFs are increasingly developing business-like behaviours. Implications: The findings highlight the importance of specialisation and social media engagement to achieve high commercialisation. However, when IFs assume a monetisation agenda, there are associated risks such as stakeholder legitimacy, mission drift, goal vagueness and adherence to good governance principles.

Cet article a pour but de comprendre le processus amenant a l’elaboration d’une nouvelle politique sportive inscrite dans une gouvernance qui doit composer avec des caracteristiques specifiques (territoires bipolaires, peri-urbanite, evolution climatique). Cette recherche se base sur l’etude du cas de la station suisse de moyenne montagne de Villars-sur-Ollon. Elle montre comment la perennisation d’une activite touristique peut se faire a travers le levier des activites sportives (pratiques, evenements et equipements sportifs). Cet article analyse les difficultes de mise en synergies des acteurs publics, prives et associatifs, et vise a promouvoir de nouvelles formes de gouvernance basees sur des partenariats strategiques pour y remedier.

Switzerland’s National League is the world’s third most high-paying ice hockey championship after the NHL and the KHL, even though Switzerland is a small country with a population of 8.5 million and the league’s professional clubs are based in areas that vary enormously in terms of their local potential (demographic and economic). How do these clubs exploit such different local potentials? In this paper, we examine the relationship between a club’s local potential and its commercial, financial and sporting results. Based on our data, we outline the specific characteristics of the different models adopted by Switzerland’s first division ice hockey clubs and draw up an empirical typology of four types of club. Our study’s contribution is both methodological and empirical. We describe an operational model that can be used to characterize local potential and three types of club expertise: marketing, managerial and sporting expertise.

Existing research on sport organisations is imprecise in the use of the concept 'professionalisation'. Furthermore, we do not know if analytical concepts of professionalisation correspond with the understanding in practice. This study explores the perceptions of practitioners and proposes a framework to analyse professionalisation in national sport federations. Expert interviews were conducted with six key people from Swiss national sport federations and then analysed these for characteristics of professionalisation using a hermeneutic approach. The characteristics were divided into three areas: (1) changed management philosophy, (2) functional differentiation and specialisation, and (3) application of management tools. However, professionalisation is primarily perceived to be a matter of 'professional' attitude that transforms into federation culture. The practitioners disclose an ambivalent view of professionalisation, e.g. business-like culture vs. voluntarism, for-profit vs. non-profit orientation, autonomy vs. control. A framework is developed that synthesises analytical concepts and practitioners' perceptions to support future comprehensive research into causes, forms and consequences of professionalisation in national sport federations.

Research question: This paper examines the ways in which French and UK professional sports clubs implement and communicate their CSR policies. In addition to identifying similarities and differences between CSR practices in the two countries, our analysis extends and adapts the implicit-explicit CSR framework to the field of sport.\ud \ud Research methods: We used a mixed methods approach to analyse qualitative and quantitative data on the CSR strategies of 66 professional rugby union (Top 14, Aviva Premiership Rugby) and football (Ligue 1, Premier League) clubs over the 2017-2018 season.\ud \ud Results and findings: We found major differences in CSR communication between France and the UK. Communication by French clubs tends to highlight sport’s values, involve few media channels, whereas communication by UK clubs explicitly vaunts their social responsibility and involves numerous channels. In the case of CSR implementation, there are similarities between French and UK clubs, especially in the fields their CSR initiatives cover (e.g., health, diversity), as well as differences. However, the scope of initiatives varies more between sports than between countries, with football demonstrating a more international outlook than rugby.\ud \ud \ud Implications: This article expands Matten and Moon’s (2008) implicit-explicit CSR framework by identifying the influence of interactions between sectorial/field-level factors and national/macro-level factors on CSR practices, and by distinguishing between CSR communication and CSR implementation. Our results throw light on the shift from implicit to explicit CSR in French professional sport.

This paper examines the relationship between sport and the Tunisian state, focusing on the issues of governance and regulation. Identified are three periods: from independence to the coup d’etat (20 March 1956–7 November 1987), where sport was a component of national identity; Ben Ali’s regime taking control of the Olympic Movement, 1987–2011; and post-2011, which witnessed attempts to achieve democracy. Descriptions of the situation in each of the three periods are followed by analyses of sports policies (objectives, resources, and results), legislation, turning points, and tensions.

In a changing and complex environment, international sport federations (IFs) have to face new challenges. These challenges can trigger or hinder IFs’ professionalization processes. While researchers have examined organizational change and professionalization of national sport federations (NFs) and clubs, studies on IFs are rare. Considering professionalization as an important element of IFs’ change processes in recent years, the study attempts to fill this gap. The conceptual framework is based on the concepts and dynamics of organizational change, the influence of isomorphic pressures and the operationalization of a multi-level framework. Data from six case studies was analyzed by means of qualitative content analysis. Findings reveal multiple causes of IFs’ professionalization. Three particular findings are discussed: professionalization as a dynamic process with phases of acceleration that vary depending on IFs’ size; IFs’ becoming increasingly business-like through isomorphic changes; and five causes of particular relevance to IFs’ current professionalization process.

Clausen and Bayle provide insights into the career of Hein Verbruggen and how his corporate mentality shaped the organisational change processes of both the UCI (International Cycling Union) and SportAccord (today: Global Association of International Sports Federations—GAISF). While Hein Verbruggen has probably been one of the most controversial figures in international sport in recent years, the chapter mainly focuses on his business vision and efforts to implement management practices in international sport organisations. To grasp his impact on international sport from a leadership perspective, the authors take a closer look at his professional career outside sport, his entry into the world of sport and the various phases he went through as a leader, his achievements and legacy, as well as allegations related to his leadership.

Clastres & Bayle offer here a synthesis of the individual careers of the fifteen global sport leaders (GSL) portrayed in this book. They also connect their management methods to diplomatic, political and economical contexts. Clearly age is more an advantage than a barrier. Cooption and patronage also helped these GSL to come through great crises but tended to encourage a culture of conservatism and, in some cases, nepotism. If experience as an elite athlete has become a distinct advantage, a large proportion of sport’s leaders have been lawyers by training. Some have managed to combine their ascent through the ranks of sports administration with a political career. Clastres & Bayle then discuss how these bodies have been presided almost exclusively by men and Europeans.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify types of professionalization in Swiss national sport federations (NSFs) and analyze organizational characteristics associated with specific types of professionalization. Such types reveal common patterns among the increasingly complex organizational designs of NSFs and thus contribute to the understanding of professionalization in NSFs. Design/methodology/approach An online survey of all Swiss NSFs was conducted to identify types of professionalization in these organizations using hierarchical cluster analysis, based on a multi-dimensional framework of professionalization. Findings The analysis revealed four types of professionalization: formalized NSFs managed by paid staff, NSFs managed by volunteers and a few paid staff off the field, NSFs with differing formalization and paid staff on the field, and moderately formalized NSFs managed by volunteers. The types differ in terms of the NSFs’ organizational characteristics, in particular, size, financial resources, Olympic status, and performance. Originality/value Applying factor and cluster analysis is a new approach to analyzing professionalization in NSFs that makes uncovering distinctive organizational patterns among a large number of NSFs possible. These results lay the foundation for understanding the professionalization of NSFs, counseling NSFs on their organizational development, and conducting future research on the design types of sport organizations.

Sepp Blatter’s four decades as a senior executive and then president of FIFA (1998–2015) left an enduring legacy for football, as the way in which he implemented and expanded the vision he shared with his predecessor, Joao Havelange, revolutionised FIFA’s management and finances. Nevertheless, his inability or unwillingness to introduce the reforms needed to stamp out the culture of corruption that permeated FIFA’s dealings, especially those involving its continental confederations. Despite his successes, the corrupt practices and clannish power system that permeated the highest levels of FIFA’s management eventually led to the collapse of the system he had instigated. In fact, the impact of FIFAgate (2015) was so great it shook the whole world of international sport.

This chapter provides a brief review of Philippe Chatrier’s life and career in sports management before focusing on the two decades (1972–1992) when he was president of the French tennis federation (FFT) and then the international tennis federation (1977–1991). We begin by examining the management principles involved in what can be called the “Chatrier system” and then discuss Chatrier’s work on the international stage, showing how his approach to management impacted the French tennis federation, the wider tennis world, the Olympic movement and international sport in general.

Research question: International and national sport federations as well as their member organisations are key actors within the sport system and have a wide range of relationships outside the sport system (e.g. with the state, sponsors, and the media). They are currently facing major challenges such as growing competition in top-level sports, democratisation of sports with 'sports for all' and sports as the answer to social problems. In this context, professionalising sport organisations seems to be an appropriate strategy to face these challenges and current problems. We define the professionalisation of sport organisations as an organisational process of transformation leading towards organisational rationalisation, efficiency and business-like management. This has led to a profound organisational change, particularly within sport federations, characterised by the strengthening of institutional management (managerialism) and the implementation of efficiency-based management instruments and paid staff. Research methods: The goal of this article is to review the current international literature and establish a global understanding of and theoretical framework for analysing why and how sport organisations professionalise and what consequences this may have. Results and findings: Our multi-level approach based on the social theory of action integrates the current concepts for analysing professionalisation in sport federations. We specify the framework for the following research perspectives: (1) forms, (2) causes and (3) consequences, and discuss the reciprocal relations between sport federations and their member organisations in this context. Implications: Finally, we work out a research agenda and derive general methodological consequences for the investigation of professionalisation processes in sport organisations.

The model underlying the organisation of sport in Switzerland is based on two main principles: the independence of Switzerland’s Olympic Committee (Swiss Olympic) and national sport federations from the State and the “federalised implementation” of sports policies—a consequence of Switzerland’s federal structure. In terms of the VOCASPORT typology, Switzerland’s sport policy/organisation model can be categorised as an evolving missionary configuration, in which the sports movement has traditionally relied on volunteers and had substantial autonomy to make decisions, but which has recently seen a substantial increase in government regulation and financing (with the creation of a sort of federal ministry for sport in 1999 and a fourfold increase in government expenditure on sport between 1972, when Switzerland’s first federal sports act was passed, and 2011). The commercial sector is also an important part of Swiss sport, due to the size of the fitness industry.

This article examines the social forces underlying FIFAgate. Why do corrupt practices, which are often highly consolidated or even institutionalized, suddenly become scandalous? What is a scandal? Why did FIFA fall into crisis in 2015 and not before? To answer these questions, it is necessary to look at the sequence of thrusts and parries between all the parties involved. Our analysis embraces the notion that social processes are based on relationships in order to provide insights into why and how denunciations can lead to long-tolerated corrupt practices suddenly becoming compromising enough to force an organization’s leaders to implement measures that would have previously been unimaginable. We use multiple sources to examine the emergence of FIFAgate and the way FIFA overcame previous critical situations, describing how FIFA neutralized earlier allegations and developed a remarkable ‘resilience’ to scandal. Finally, we analyse the successive mobilizations whose domino effect led to the emergence of FIFAgate and the measures FIFA took to contain the scandal. Our research enabled us to draw up a new theoretical model for analysing corruption scandals.

International audience

La notion de gouvernance des organisations recouvre « l’ensemble des mécanismes organisationnels qui ont pour effet de délimiter les pouvoirs et d’influencer les décisions des dirigeants, autrement dit qui gouvernent leur conduite et définissent leur espace discrétionnaire » (Charreaux, 1997). Nous distinguons avec Henry (2005) trois dimensions : la gouvernance organisationnelle, politique et systémique.L’article est centré sur la gouvernance organisationnelle en interaction avec les deux autres formes de gouvernance. Il s’intéresse essentiellement à la question de l’efficacité de la gouvernance en lien avec le rôle des principaux dirigeants des fédérations sportives françaises (association en charge d’une mission de service public : promouvoir, organiser et développer leur-s- discipline–s- sportive-s-) au regard des influences auxquelles ils doivent faire face. Depuis dix ans sous l’influence de la doctrine Carver (1997, 2001), les agences ministérielles en charge du sport en Grande-Bretagne, en Australie, en Nouvelle-Zélande et surtout au Canada ont identifié l’amélioration de la gouvernance comme une priorité stratégique pour les (grandes) associations. De nouvelles pratiques ont vu le jour en la matière transformant radicalement les pratiques traditionnelles originelles. Nous analyserons leurs intérêts pour les fédérations sportives françaises qui connaissent depuis de nombreuses années un certain nombre de difficultés en la matière : une politique et des pratiques de gouvernance mal définies, des professionnels qui peuvent prendre, officiellement ou officieusement, la direction politique de ces organisations ; des présidents parfois omnipotents sans l’existence de CA exerçant de réels contrepouvoirs ; une absence de clarté dans la délégation managériale ; un risque de rupture, de sclérose et de conflits entre le sommet (le siège fédéral) et la base (les clubs – mandants) ; un rôle incitatif et de contrôle ambivalent du ministère de tutelle. The concept of governance of organisations can be define as “ all organisational’s mechanisms which have the effect of delimitate power and influence decisions of managers, that is govern their behaviour and the span of their capacities” (Chareraux, 1997). We distinguish, with Henry (2005), three dimensions of this concept : organisational, political and systemic governance. This article is centred on organisational governance in link with the two other forms of governance. It deals with effectiveness of governance in relation with the role of managers (elected and paid) of French sport federations (in charge of a public mission service : promote, organise and develop their sport). Since ten years under the influence of Carver’s publications (1997, 2001), ministries in charge of sport in Great Britain, in Australia, in New Zealand and above all in Canada have identified the improvement of governance as strategic priority of big voluntary organisations. In these countries, new practices of governance have emerged which have transformed traditional and former governance practices. We analysed their interests of French sport federations which faced some difficulties in this field : a policy and governance’s practices are not well defined, professional managers who can take officially or not the political leadership of these organisations ; president who concentrate all the powers without counter powers of board of administration in front of them ; a managerial’s delegation not clear ; a risk of beach of contact and conflicts between headquarters of the federations and clubs (local associations) ; a role of control of ministry of sport which is not very clear and effective.

Social responsibility, especially in the fields of education, society and peace, is one of the cornerstones of the olympic ideal and strategic vision (contribute to building a better world through sport). The article reviews the literature on organizational social responsibility (OSR) and the relationship between sport/olympism and OSR in order to examine the conditions governing the implementation and success of the International Olympic Committee's strategic vision. Several ways in which the IOC could promote a more ambitious and better-integrated social strategy: revise its performance model, notably evaluate and present in a social responsibility report; promote the adoption of OSR initiatives and strategies within the Olympic System from the bottom-up, rather than from the top-down; share best practices in the different countries for promoting and developing "sport for all"; create a World Agency for Development through Sport, or partnering and funding the international platform on sport and development; creating a World Agency for the International Governance of Sport. Two possible scenarios for the future of Olympic responsibility are finally discussed: strategy of "small steps" and a more ambitious local and global social strategy through sport and olympism.

France is a unitary constitutional republic which has a parliamentary system with a semi-presidential tendency. Historically, the country has defended democratic, non-religious and republican values. Its motto Liberte, egalite, fraternite means Liberty, equality and fraternity. The capital of France is Paris, French being the official language with the euro as its currency.

Corruption scandals within international sport are nothing new, but the arrests in Zurich have shaken world soccer to the core. FIFA is in crisis, with allegations of systemic failures of governanc...

L’article a pour objet l’analyse des representations de l’activite des femmes dirigeantes dans les federations sportives francaises. Il s’agit, dans le contexte contemporain de ces organisations marque par la coexistence de deux formes contradictoires de legitimite de leur management (hierarchique versus participatif), de rendre compte de la construction du champ des possibles manageriaux des femmes dirigeantes. En analysant la facon dont les acteurs (5 dirigeantes, 4 collaboratrices et 9 collaborateurs) de deux federations percoivent et qualifient les dispositions feminines, il s’agit de montrer comment les attributs feminins (et masculins) percus sont traduits dans le langage des competences manageriales. L’analyse montre que les frontieres du legitime et de l’illegitime agir managerial au feminin se deplacent de facon ambivalente. En effet, si, d’un cote, on assiste a une ouverture d’espaces de legitimite inedits pour l’exercice feminin des fonctions de direction, de l’autre, on constate une permanence des representations de la division sexuelle de l’exercice du pouvoir qui limitent l’engagement des femmes dirigeantes aux seuls postes fonctionnels ou techniques.

The measurement of performance of a voluntary organization challenges man-agement theorists and practitioners. What are the effectiveness and efficiency criteria to evaluate performance of these organizations? To overcome the limi-tations of current methods of performance measurement, we propose a new performance measurement technique in a taxonomic perspective that associ-ates qualitative and quantitative indicators thanks to a contractual approach. This approach establishes a typology of 6 performance profiles of 40 NSO. Statistical correlations between performance dimensions are also analyzed. Statistical analysis shows that dimensions of performance are significantly correlated. Economic and financial performance is correlated more with pro-motional performance than with the number of members.

This volume commemorating the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) headquarters in Lausanne draws on the papers read at a symposium held to mark the...

International audience