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Applying the most appropriate sampling method is essential for estimating population size. Sampling methods and techniques to estimate abundance may be limited by environmental characteristics, species traits, specific requirements of the techniques, or the economic resources to carry out the sampling. Thus, evaluating multiple sampling methods in monitoring populations is essential for establishing effective conservation strategies. In this study, we compare two of the most commonly used sampling methods with the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as the type species. On the one hand, we compared the minimum number of individuals (NI) detected by camera trapping, identifying individuals by morphological characteristics with the minimum number of individuals detected by DNA faeces and a set of 16 microsatellites. On the other hand, we estimated abundance by performing an N-mixture model using information from camera-traps to study the relationship between abundance and the minimum number of individuals detected. Results showed that the minimum NI provided by camera trapping was slightly higher than that of DNA faecal genotyping, with 23.66 and 19 individuals, respectively. In addition, abundance and NI detected by camera trapping showed a positive relationship. In contrast, there was a non-significant negative relationship between NI detected by faecal DNA and abundance estimates. Our results suggest using the minimum number of photo-identified individuals as a reliable index to study variation in red fox abundance when other advanced methods cannot be implemented in the study of population size. However, it is necessary to improve the methods of faecal sampling to study the relationship with camera-trap data.

Considerable amounts of farmland in Mediterranean European landscapes have been abandoned and undergone natural regeneration or planted with trees in the last few decades, resulting in mixed forest and farmland mosaics. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of forest restoration on the composition and relative abundance of a carnivore community in the mixed farmland-forest landscape of Campo de Montiel (central Spain). We predicted that forest restoration, either natural regeneration following land abandonment or by tree planting, resulted in a new heterogenous landscape that supports a diverse carnivore community; consequently, we used two reference sites with non-planted Mediterranean trees. We assessed (1) the structure of woody vegetation, (2) the occurrence and relative abundance of carnivores, and (3) the environmental factors that explain carnivore occupancy patterns controlling for differences in detectability. Tree planting led to lower diversity of woody species than that found in the naturally regenerated forests. Woody vegetation cover in the reforested plots and in the natural vegetation plots did not differ significantly. The carnivores detected were, in decreasing order of abundance, red fox, Egyptian mongoose, badger, stone marten, and wildcat, which were also present at the reference sites except the mongoose. We did not detect differences in community composition and relative abundance between the reforested site and the two reference sites. We also found similar patterns of species detectability among sites. Overall, the results revealed that reforestation can provide new habitats for carnivores in previous agricultural land and can be a useful tool for rewilding initiatives.

Data on SARS-CoV-2 infection in wildlife species is limited. The high prevalences found in mustelid species such as free-ranging American minks (Neovison vison) and domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) justify the study of this virus in the closely related autochthonous free-ranging European polecat (Mustela putorius). We analysed lung samples from 48 roadkilled polecats collected when the human infection reached its highest levels in Spain (2020–2021). We did not detect infections by SARS-CoV-2; however, surveillance in wild carnivores and particularly in mustelids is still warranted, due to their susceptibility to this virus.

Surveys based on indirect signs and camera trapping are two non-invasive methods extensively used for monitoring elusive mammals. Both approaches can be useful to obtain key information on wildlife in remote areas, since they may allow for the logistically viable design of optimal field frameworks. The sand cat (Felis margarita) is a feline that inhabits the Sahara Desert, the Arabian Peninsula, and western Asian deserts. Its basic ecology is poorly known and the status and impacts of threats are difficult to assess. Some local population declines have been detected, and more research is needed. Based on field surveys carried out in the Atlantic Sahara, we have evaluated the applications of both methods to study this species. Our results show that (a) camera trapping provided reliable data on several key aspects of its ecology, (b) walking surveys to collect feces for molecular data failed completely, and (c) for footprints, identification problems and the marked effects of the absence of optimal substrates and the prevalence of wind are relevant handicaps. Beyond this evaluation, we provide for the first time some key aspects of the ecology of sand cats in the Sahara Desert, including habitat selection, density, diel activity, and predator–prey relationships., Universidad de Granada/ CBUA, Fundación Barcelona Zoo (PRIC Project 2017 grant)

Global warming and displacement of vectors and wild and domestic hosts by humans greatly change host-parasite interactions and parasite transmission rates. Thelazia callipaeda Railliet and Henry, 1910 (Spirurida: Thelaziidae) is a zoonotic parasite rapidly colonizing Europe from its Asian native range. This nematode is vectored by Phortica flies and may cause ocular disorders, such as keratitis and corneal ulcers, in wild mammals, dogs, cats and humans. With the aim of detecting possible threats for the European wildcat (Felis silvestris) in one of its last Mediterranean strongholds, we initiated in 2017 a long-term monitoring program in Sierra Arana (southeastern Spain), which includes exploring its epidemiological and spatial relationships with domestic cats (Felis catus). During routine medical check-ups, we detected ocular nematodes in 3 of 17 (17.6%) wildcats and 1 of 23 (4.3%) domestic cats tested, confirmed to be T. callipaeda by microscopic and molecular analyses. This nematode species was first detected in the study area in 2021. To our knowledge, this is the first case of infection in wildcats in Spain. Through telemetry, we detected little spatial overlap between the home ranges of wildcats and domestic cats, which seems to be sufficient to facilitate the inter-specific transmission of T. callipaeda. Our findings suggest that this pathogen could be a new threat to the wildcat, a locally endangered wild felid. Further eco-epidemiological monitoring and sanitary control of domestic cats will be strongly needed, especially given the ongoing global warming scenario.

Global change affects species and ecosystems by modifying population dynamics and the function and structure of ecosystems. The effects of drivers of global change on species depend on their traits and the location of each population within their geographical distribution area. For example, the quality of the niche decreases at the limit of the geographical distribution of species. The Iberian Peninsula is the southern limit of distribution of many species of Euro-Siberian origin, being the Iberian mole (Talpa occidentalis) one of those that may be affected by the modification of its habitat. In this study, we evaluated the effect of vegetation type, soil and climate on the abundance of the Iberian mole along climatic and geographical gradients in the Community of Madrid (central Spain). Our results confirmed that Iberian moles were more abundant in bioclimatic stages with temperate and humid conditions, such as mountains, which are linked to human livestock grazing activities. The abandonment of these due to changes in economic activity reduces the density and diversity of earthworm communities, making it difficult to obtain food. The reduction of mole populations has consequences for ecosystems, as they favor soil regeneration and contribute to the maintenance of floristic biodiversity, thus improving ecosystem and food chain conservation.

Climate change is forcing the redistribution of life on Earth at an unprecedented velocity1,2. Migratory birds are thought to help plants to track climate change through long-distance seed dispersal3,4. However, seeds may be consistently dispersed towards cooler or warmer latitudes depending on whether the fruiting period of a plant species coincides with northward or southward migrations. Here we assess the potential of plant communities to keep pace with climate change through long-distance seed dispersal by migratory birds. To do so, we combine phenological and migration information with data on 949 seed-dispersal interactions between 46 bird and 81 plant species from 13 woodland communities across Europe. Most of the plant species (86%) in these communities are dispersed by birds migrating south, whereas only 35% are dispersed by birds migrating north; the latter subset is phylogenetically clustered in lineages that have fruiting periods that overlap with the spring migration. Moreover, the majority of this critical dispersal service northwards is provided by only a few Palaearctic migrant species. The potential of migratory birds to assist a small, non-random sample of plants to track climate change latitudinally is expected to strongly influence the formation of novel plant communities, and thus affect their ecosystem functions and community assembly at higher trophic levels., The ‘Molecular Ecology Laboratory’ (LEM–EBD–CSIC; ISO9001:2015 and ISO14001:2015 certifications) and the ‘Research Unit of Biodiversity’ (UO–CSIC–PA) provided logistical support for molecular analyses. We thank L. Viesca and E. Cires for laboratory assistance, and J. M. Varela for the bird illustrations. Barcoding data were obtained within an Individual Fellowship from the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (H2020-MSCA-IF-2014-656572: MobileLinks) and supported by a GRUPIN grant from the Regional Government of Asturias (IDI/2018/000151). ‘King Jaume I’ awarded to A.T. supported data collation during two postdoctoral contracts. J.P.G.-V. is supported by a Spanish ‘Ramón y Cajal’ fellowship (RYC-2017-22095) and a grant from the Spanish MICINN (PID2019-104922GA-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033). B.R. is supported by a Spanish ‘Juan de la Cierva Incorporación’ fellowship (IJCI-2017-33475). R.H.H. is funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (UID/BIA/04004/2020). B.I.S. is supported by a Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 Research Fellowship. W.J.S. is funded by Arcadia.

Apex predators play key roles in food webs and their recovery can trigger trophic cascades in some ecosystems. Intra-guild competition can reduce the abundances of smaller predators and perceived predation risk can alter their foraging behaviour thereby limiting seed dispersal by frugivorous carnivores. However, little is known about how plant–frugivore mutualisms could be disturbed in the presence of larger predators. We evaluated the top-down effect of the regional superpredator, the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus, on the number of visits and fruits consumed by medium-sized frugivorous carnivores, as well as the foraging behaviour of identified individuals, by examining the consumption likelihood and the foraging time. We carried out a field experiment in which we placed Iberian pear Pyrus bourgaeana fruits beneath fruiting trees and monitored pear removal by frugivorous carnivores, both inside and outside lynx ranges. Using camera traps, we recorded the presence of the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the Eurasian badger Meles meles and the stone marten Martes foina, as well as the number of fruits they consumed and their time spent foraging. Red fox was the most frequent fruit consumer carnivore. We found there were fewer visits and less fruit consumed by foxes inside lynx ranges, but lynx presence did not seem to affect badgers. We did not observe any stone marten visits inside lynx territories. The foraging behaviour of red foxes was also altered inside lynx ranges whereby foxes were less efficient, consuming less fruit per unit of time and having shorter visits. Local availability of fruit resources, forest coverage and individual personality also were important variables to understand visitation and foraging in a landscape of fear. Our results show a potential trophic cascade from apex predators to primary producers. The presence of lynx can reduce frugivorous carnivore numbers and induce shifts in their feeding behaviour that may modify the seed dispersal patterns with likely consequences for the demography of many fleshy-fruited plant species. We conclude that knowledge of the ecological interactions making up trophic webs is an asset to design effective conservation strategies, particularly in rewilding programs., Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Grant/Award Number: CGL2017-84633-P and FPU17/04375

SummaryThe human abandonment of rural areas facilitates rewilding, which is also supported by European projects and initiatives. Rewilding often implies the return of iconic predators such as the wolf (Canis lupus), leading to human–wildlife conflicts. To reverse human depopulation, initiatives such as the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidize extensive grazing of areas unsuitable for intensive agriculture. Therefore, rewilding and reversing depopulation initiatives seem to be mutually incompatible, and further insight into controversial aspects of the return of apex predators is needed when considering the reform of the CAP for post-2020. To develop understanding of these different objectives in the context of large carnivore recolonizations, we analysed wolf attacks on livestock in central Spain, where livestock is managed differently between the plateau and the mountains. As with other European regions, this area is undergoing rural abandonment and is subsidized by the CAP. Free-roaming cattle at higher elevations were subject to increased attacks irrespective of the abundance of wild prey. Efforts to subsidize human repopulation of areas experiencing recolonization by large carnivores require consideration of a model of cohabitation with these predators assisted by mitigation and compensation measures. Rewilding could bring alternative sustainable income based on the values brought by the presence of large carnivores and associated ecosystem services.

Scent-marking is a common behaviour among mammals with different functions including territory marking. However, this behaviour has high energy costs and thus a territory owner must select the most...

Wildlife monitoring is essential for assessing the size of species of conservation or management concern. Wildlife monitoring could be undertaken by selected volunteers when limited resources are available. Here, we study the sources of variation in the detectability of red fox scats and to improve the monitoring of the species by means of volunteers who were briefly trained. We selected nine transects to experimentally evaluate the differences in red fox scat detectability between observers, microsite, and scat abundance. Scats were deposited in five microsites, where we simulate low, medium, and high fox scat abundance. We tested the proposed effects by using GLMM analysis incorporating observer effect as a random factor. Our results indicated effects on scat detectability of observer identity and microsite type. We did not observe the effects of scat abundance on detectability of scats. Detectability was lower for scats located in the middle of the transect and on the rocks. We conclude that large-scale red foxes surveys might be conducted using volunteers, but due to the moderate differences detected among observers should be minimized using a training period.

Knowledge of population dynamics of threatened species in the wild is key to effective conservation actions. However, at present, there are many examples of endangered animals for which their current situation is unknown, and not just in remote areas and less developed countries. We have explored this topic by studying the paradigmatic case of the European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), an endangered small carnivore whose status has been subjectively established on the basis of non-systematic approaches and opportunistic records. Little is known about its demographic situation, prompting the need for information to improve conservation measures. However, the secretive behaviour of felines along with its low density in natural conditions have prevented the gathering of sufficient data. We developed a field sampling strategy for one of the largest populations (Andalusia, South Spain, 87,268 km2), based on a logistically viable systematic non-intrusive survey by camera-trapping. This study offers the first large-scale estimation for any European wildcat population, based on analytical approaches applied on Species Distribution Models. A hierarchical approach based on a Maxent model for distribution estimation was used, along with Generalised Linear Models for density estimation from explicit spatial capture-recapture data. Our results show that the distribution range is smaller and more highly fragmented than previously assumed. The overall estimated density was very low (0.069 ±0.0019 wildcats/km2) and the protected areas network seems to be insufficient to cover a significant part of the population or a viable nucleus in demographic terms. Indeed, the most important areas remain unprotected. Our main recommendations are to improve the protected area network and/or vigilance programs in hunting estates, in addition to studying and improving connectivity between the main population patches., The research was partially funded by the Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio (www.juntadeandalucia.es › medioambiente › site › portalweb) through the European Union (FEDER Project http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/medioambiente/site/portalweb/menuitem.6ffc7f4a4459b86a1daa5c105510e1c/?vgnextoid=05cf8706a8bb9510VgnVCM1000001325e50aRCRD&vgnextchannel=05cf8706a8bb9510VgnVCM1000001325e50aRCRD) and is part of the Global Change Observatory of Sierra Nevada (https://digibug.ugr.es/handle/10481/54686). J.M.G.-S. was supported by a Prometeo fellowship from the SENESCYT and the national agency for Education and Science of the Government of Ecuador (https://www.educacionsuperior.gob.ec/prometeo/).

European badgers (Meles meles) are considered central-place foragers, whose spatial ecology is predominantly determined by sett location. Many studies have assessed the factors determining sett site selection throughout this species’ range, but these have often been geographically limited and have primarily identified locally dependent factors. To infer key factors determining sett location, a broader scale approach is needed. Between June 2014 and January 2017, we surveyed mainland Portugal to detect badger setts in 10 × 10 km cells, corresponding to a total of 657.5 km walked line transects. We detected 54 main setts in 136 surveyed cells. Each sett and non-sett site (i.e. transects without setts) was characterised using bioenvironmental variables (e.g. land cover, presence of human infrastructure, soil). We used generalized linear mixed models to test five hypotheses potentially explaining sett location: land cover composition; anthropogenic disturbance; abiotic environmental drivers; trophic resource availability; and a combined effect of all these factors. Our findings show that the key factors for badger sett site selection in Portugal are: (1) disturbance avoidance (low beehive density; absence of livestock; far from hunting reserves), but with a tendency to be located close to highways and unpaved roads; and (2) ease of excavation (avoidance of sedimentary/metamorphic composite rocks). Although specific factors among these drivers may be more important locally or regionally, these major drivers have also been identified elsewhere in Europe. Our nationwide approach contributes to a broader understanding of general patterns of sett site selection by badgers in southern Europe. Furthermore, it provides the national authorities with novel and broad-scale data to facilitate sustainable species conservation of badgers in the southwestern limit of their range.

How species use space and time is central in ecology and evolution as well as for the conservation and management of vulnerable species. Unfortunately, this information is scarce for elusive species such as the threatened European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris), especially in Mediterranean areas. Using radiotracking and cameratrapping, we studied the habitat selection and the diel activity of a wildcat population in SE Spain, with particular emphasis on the relationships between wildcats and their main prey, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). First, we used Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) to analyse the insuence of vegetation, rabbit abundance, topography and humanization on wildcat presence at several spatial scales and according to wildcat activity. Second, we used Spearman’s rank correlations to assess the spatial relationship between the relative abundance indexes (RAIs) of wildcats and rabbits. Third, we used kernel density estimates to determine the daily activity patterns of wildcats and rabbits, and compared them by calculating the coeficient of overlap Δ. Patch complexity, rabbit abundance, slope and cover of dense scrubs were the most influential variables on wildcat presence. However, the effects of some environmental variables were scale-dependent. The relationship between rabbit abundance and wildcat presence was positive for the smaller scales and, unexpectedly, negative for the largest one. This result was supported by the quadratic relationship between wildcat RAI and rabbit RAI, indicating that wildcats generally avoided the highest rabbit abundance areas. We observed a typical nocturnal activity for wildcats, which surprisingly did not synchronize with the rabbit activity patterns. Rabbit antipredatory strategies, human pressure avoidance behaviour in wildcats and competition with other carnivores could be behind the observed spatiotemporal mismatch between wildcats and rabbits. Overall, our study highlights the importance of combining spatial and temporal approaches to obtain an integrative view of how resources are exploited by wildlife.

The Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon Linnaeus, 1758) is an expanding species, whose presence in Europe is restricted to its western extreme. Mongooses are generalist and opportunistic carnivores which is reflected by their anatomical features and nutritional preferences. With the purpose to fully characterize mongoose diet and ascertain if game species overlap within the guild of consumed food items, a total of 122 stomach contents of animals resulting from hunting activities and accidental road kills from seven provinces of mainland Portugal were identified. In order to identify which factors influence the nutritional requirements and food preferences of the Egyptian mongoose, several individual parameters (body condition, spleen weight, age class, fat levels and sex) were related with bio-ecologic features, as seasonality, region, habitat primary productivity, climate, human disturbance and environmental conditions. The results suggested that the diet of the Egyptian mongoose is mainly composed of mammals. Mammals and amphibians were predominant in males’ stomach contents, while reptiles and invertebrates overlapped other food categories in females’ diet. Diet (food categories) variations across age groups were registered. The consumption of prey also varied throughout the year, according to availability and mongoose energy uptake needs, with a higher consumption of more energetic prey during the breeding season. Mongooses consumed more mammals and reptiles in areas with higher primary productivity. Our data thus suggest that the consumption of reptiles, predominantly by females, results in heavier spleens, possibly driving to greater investment in immunity and better animal performance during the breeding period. In a general way, the obtained results suggest that mongooses do not exclusively focus their diet on game species although this does not necessarily mean a low impact of this carnivore on game species.

Resumen El meloncillo es una especie en expansion en el centro y norte de la Peninsula Iberica. Ningun trabajo, hasta la fecha, habia confirmado este proceso dispersivo en su borde de distribucion suroriental, situado en trabajos previos entre las provincias de Malaga y Granada. Por medio de un muestreo sistematico e intensivo focalizado en la especie (con trampas de pelo, rastreo de indicios, recoleccion de citas y encuestas), se muestrearon 49 cuadriculas UTM (10x10 km) en aproximadamente la mitad occidental de la provincia de Granada, entre noviembre de 2014 y enero de 2015. Se detecto la presencia segura de la especie en 16 cuadriculas (bibliografia cientifica, trampas de pelo, atropello, entrada en centro de recuperacion, capturas en coto de caza, fototrampeo y taxidermia) y seis con presencia probable (avistamientos sin foto, huellas y encuestas). Nuestros resultados muestran que el meloncillo esta experimentando una expansion hacia el extremo suroriental de la Peninsula. Este estudio pone de relieve que las trampas de pelo constituyen un metodo no invasivo de gran eficacia para el seguimiento de la distribucion de la especie. Los resultados obtenidos tienen gran utilidad como herramienta de gestion en proyectos de conservacion e investigacion sobre dicha especie. Palabras clave: Granada, meloncillo, presencia, rastreo de indicios, trampa de pelo. Abstract The Egyptian mongoose is expanding in the center and north of the Iberian Peninsula. So far no studies confirm the dispersal process in the most southeastern distribution, which was previously located between the provinces of Malaga and Granada. Through a systematic and intensive methodology focused on detecting mongoose (hair-traps, sign surveys and questionnaires), 49 UTM-grids (10x10 km) were sampled in approximately the western region of the province of Granada, between November 2014 and January 2015. The presence of the species has been confirmed in 16 grids (scientific literature, hair-traps, roadkills, records from wildlife recovery centers, kills in hunting grounds, reliable quotes from camera traps and/or taxidermy) and in other 6 grids the presence was considered probable (sightings without photo, fingerprints and surveys). Our results show that the mongoose is undergoing an expansion to the southeastern part of the Peninsula. This study also shows that hair-traps are a non-invasive method highly effective for monitoring the distribution of this species. These results could be a useful management tool in conservation projects and research on this species. Keywords: Granada, Egyptian mongoose, presence, indirect sampling, hair trap. DOI: 10.7325/Galemys.2016.A5

The control of introduced mammalian predators (IMP) through trapping campaigns relies on operator experience to deploy traps in sites with an expected high probability of IMP presence, where the maximum number of captures is anticipated. We tested the limitations of available information on fine-scale spatial use by feral cats modelled from remote data collection methods (small-resolution satellite imagery and GPS-telemetry) in an intensive control campaign conducted over 8 years in an ecologically sensitive area of New Zealand. We calculated dichotomous optimal/sub-optimal areas for cats and found that operators placed traps in or close to optimal areas. Over a continuous range of probabilities of cat use, trap sites were not principally placed in hot spots of cat use. Logistic regression revealed that the probability of cat use was significantly associated with the probability of capture. However, regressing catch-effort against the probability of cat use showed no association between sites of high probability of cat use and higher capture rates. The incorporation in the models of bait, trap type, and habitat suitability for rabbits, as variables of operator’s choice showed that rabbit suitability, and the combination of baits/traps were significant. Results suggest that trapping feral cats is a complex process that likely relies on variables of space, time, and individual cognition. However, control programmes could improve trap deployment by identifying sites of high probability of cat use to maximize capture probability, while traps in sub-optimal areas could be removed (cost reduction), reallocated to optimal areas, or used to “fence” core conservation areas.

Free-range livestock grazing is a widespread human activity that not only modifies natural vegetation but also leads to interactions with wild ungulates. Most commonly, the interactions between cattle and wild ungulates have been studied with a focus on competition for high-quality forage. However, other mechanisms, such as the risk of parasite infection, might better describe this interaction. We aim to determine whether livestock affect roe deer (Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758) by reducing habitat quality and increasing the probability of infection by shared parasites. We measured noninvasive fecal cortisol metabolites as an indicator of habitat quality as well as the lung nematode larvae burden from the Dictyocaulus genus. A higher Dictyocaulus larvae load was found in the presence of livestock in pines, and feces collected in winter had a higher parasite load than feces collected in autumn. Additionally, fecal cortisol metabolite levels in the roe deer were affected by the interaction between habitat quality and livestock presence and were higher in the poorest habitat and when living in sympatry with cattle. Our results suggest that physiological stress responses in roe deer were mediated by the habitat type and the presence of competitors. The long-term implications of altered physiological responses such as those demonstrated here should be considered in management strategies for deer.

Human-Induced Rapid Environmental Change (HIREC), particularly climate change and habitat conversion, affects species distributions worldwide. Here, we aimed to (i) assess the factors that determine range patterns of European badger (Meles meles) at the southwestern edge of their distribution and (ii) forecast the possible impacts of future climate and landcover changes on those patterns. We surveyed 272 cells of 5 × 5 km, to assess badger presence and confirmed its occurrence in 95 cells (35%). Our models estimate that badger’s presence is promoted by the occurrence of herbaceous fields and shrublands (5%–10%), and low proportions of Eucalyptus plantations (50% of podzols and eruptive rocks, higher sheep/goat density (>4 ind/km2), an absence of cattle, intermediate precipitation regimes (800–1000 mm/year) and mild mean temperatures (15–16 °C) are also more likely to host badgers. We predict a decrease in favourability of southern areas for hosting badgers under forecasted climate and landcover change scenarios, which may lead to a northwards retraction of the species southern distribution limit, but the overall landscape favourability is predicted to slightly increase. The forecasted retraction may affect community functional integrity, as its role in southern ecological networks will be vacant. Thanks for financial support are due to University of Aveiro (Department of Biology), to CESAM (UID/AMB/50017 - POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007638), to cE3c (UID/BIA/00329/2013), to FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC), and the co-funding by the FEDER within the PT2020 Partnership Agreement and Compete 2020. JC was supported by a PhD Grant (SFRH/BD/98387/2013) from Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal SI

The Endangered Cuvier's gazelleGazella cuvieriis an endemic ungulate of north-western Africa. Information on the species has been based primarily on non-systematic surveys, and the corresponding status estimates are of unknown quality. We evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of two field methods for systematic surveys of populations of Cuvier's gazelle in arid environments: distance sampling (based on sightings) and sampling indirect sign (tracks and scats). The work was carried out in the north-western Sahara Desert, in Morocco, where what is possibly the largest population of Cuvier's gazelle persists. A logistically viable survey was conducted over a total area of c. 20.000 km2in 10 expeditions during 2011–2014. A total of 67 sites were surveyed, with 194 walking surveys (2,169 km in total). Gazelle signs were detected at 50 sites, and gazelles were sighted at 21 sites (61 individuals). We found a relationship between sightings and abundance indices based on indirect sign, which could be useful for population monitoring or ecological studies. Additionally, the data could be used in occupancy modelling. Density estimates based on distance sampling required considerable effort; however, it is possible to survey large areas during relatively short campaigns, and this proved to be the most useful approach to obtain data on the demographic structure of the population.

The Egyptian mongoose ( Herpestes ichneumon ) is a carnivore game species in Portugal, whose fundamental ecology remains to be fully explored. For instance, the physical features of this species have not yet been studied through a continuous wide area, as an entire country. In this work, the averages of eight biometric parameters and body mass of both genders were determined for 559 free-ranging animals from four age classes that were established by dental growth. Sexual dimorphism in body size of adult Egyptian mongoose is reported for the first time in the Portuguese territory, with males being larger than females. Differences across regions are also evidenced, with animals from south of Tagus River being larger than those from the north. Comparison with similar data available from other mongoose populations of the Mediterranean basin suggests that adult specimens from Portugal are less heavy than animals from Donana in Spain and Israel, while males appear to be larger in body length. Statistically significant differences encountered among gender, age and region, suggest that sexual selection, prey availability, human constrains and different habitat use patterns regulate the body size of this species.

Unintentional mortality of endangered carnivores due to non-selective trapping is important for conservation and warrants urgent attention. Currently, non-selective traps are being approved and used based on trap selectivity tests conducted according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) guidelines. We review these guidelines and find them inadequate, because: (1) the ISO definition of selectivity does not account for relative abundance of target and non-target species and does not therefore meaningfully reflect selectivity; (2) the guidelines methodology at best quantifies relative selectivity of one trap against another, which is of limited use unless the control trap is known to have an acceptable level of absolute selectivity for the target species; (3) information on relative trap selectivity cannot simply be extrapolated elsewhere, unless species assemblage and relative species abundances are consistent. We demonstrate that the ISO definition of trap selectivity is only a simple capture proportion and therefore does not represent trap selectivity. ISO guidelines on trap selectivity should be reviewed to reflect particular ecological scenarios and we suggest how this might be done. Policy-makers, practitioners and researchers should interpret scientific results more cautiously. Trap approval decisions should be based on scientific evidence to avoid undermining the conservation of biodiversity. © 2016 Springer Science+Business Media DordrechtEndangered species; ISO standards; Non-target species; Predator control; Selectivity; Wildlife management

This study evaluates the influence of landscape on the feeding habits of the European badger (Meles meles) in the southern Iberian Peninsula and discusses some potential implications that the scenarios of climate change and land use and land cover changes proposed for this region could have on the diet of badgers. We particularly explore whether different vegetation types and land uses affect its feeding habits across three arid landscapes: maquia, xeric shrubland, and forestry. Although badger diet in Mediterranean environments has been described as frugivorous, in which the key food resources are wild or cultivated fruit (e.g., olives or figs), this species’ diet may vary in response to landscape composition, with individuals locally consuming different key items in an arid Mediterranean context. Based on the analysis of 252 scats collected monthly from June 2011 to May 2012, we found that diet significantly varied among the landscapes studied: Insects, carob, and small mammals were the key items in the maquia, figs, and oranges in the xeric shrubland, and earthworms and insects in the forestry. This shows that in an arid context, badgers adapt their diet to particular landscape conditions. Thus, our results support the important role of human activities, specifically the fruit orchards, in shaping badger diet and highlight the contrasting dietary differences of badgers, i.e., from an animal-based diet to one dominated by cultivated fruits when this type of crops are relevant in the landscape. In these circumstances and based on the proven effect of precipitation and land management practices on the food items identified here, we suggest that crop abandonment and less precipitation could reduce the availability of the badger’s key food resources, locally affecting its fitness and including local extinction where the habitats are extremely arid or crop abandonment is dominant.

Understanding species distribution is central to ecology, evolution and wildlife conservation. However, detecting species presence in the field may be challenging, especially for scarce, elusive and wide-ranging animals such as mammalian carnivores. Here we undertook a large-scale methodological study to assess scat sampling effort required to detect five mesocarnivore species in a Spanish Mediterranean area. Our goals were to: (1) evaluate the optimal effort (i.e. transect length) needed to detect scats of each species; and (2) examine if this sampling effort depends on environmental factors. First, we constructed “curves of first detection” for each carnivore species and evaluated the most cost-effective sampling effort. Second, we used Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) to relate the transect length to first detection of each species in each positive transect to a comprehensive set of environmental variables. Our results suggested that sampling effort in this study, namely the transect length needed to detect a given species, can be substantially shortened for two species (red fox and stone marten) with a relatively low reduction in the information on their presence. The most efficient scenario corresponded to a transect length of 1.5 km, where red foxes and stone martens would be detected in 72.95 and 65.43% of the positive transects, respectively. However, different sampling approaches would be advisable for the remaining species. We also found that the sampling effort was weakly affected by environmental constraints. Our study may contribute to the design of more efficient scat-based carnivore sampling methodologies elsewhere. In particular, we propose that our results can be successfully extrapolated to other areas of the Iberian Peninsula with close abundances of the species considered and similar environmental characteristics.

Resumen En este estudio se describe estacionalmente la dieta del tejon europeo en un paisaje arido mediterraneo constituido mayoritariamente por matorral xerico y en menor medida por cultivos, y se discute que impulsores directos de Cambio Global pueden afectar potencialmente a su comportamiento trofico. En base a 140 excrementos recolectados mensualmente entre junio de 2011 y mayo de 2012, se observaron diferencias significativas en el consumo de frutos e invertebrados entre estaciones, mientras que el consumo de vertebrados fue constante. Los higos y naranjas resultaron ser los items mas consumidos a lo largo del ano. Dado que la disponibilidad de naranjas depende del manejo humano y la de higos depende principalmente de las precipitaciones, el comportamiento alimenticio del tejon podria verse afectado tanto por cambios en el uso del suelo, como consecuencia de las actividades humanas, como por variaciones en el patron de precipitacion derivadas del cambio climatico. Palabras clave: dieta, cambio global, Meles meles, Peninsula Iberica, tejon europeo, usos del suelo. Abstract In this study we describe the European badger diet in a Mediterranean arid landscape mainly dominated by xeric shrubland, and we discuss the potential implications of direct drivers of Global Change on its feeding behavior. Based on an analysis of 140 scats collected monthly from June 2011 to May 2012, it was observed that the consumption of fruits and invertebrates were significantly different between seasons while vertebrates was not. In addition, we found that figs and oranges were dominant items along the year. Due to the availability of oranges depends on the human management and figs depend more directly on rainfall, the feeding behavior of badger could be affected both by changes in land cover/use as well as changes in the rainfall patterns derived by climate change. Keywords: European Badger, diet, global change, Meles meles, Iberian Peninsula, land cover/use. DOI: 10.7325/Galemys.2015.A3

Escribano-Avila, G., Pias, B., Escudero, A., Virgos, E. 2015. Ecological relevance of frugivorous mammals in the regeneration dynamics of old fields in Mediterranean environments. Ecosistemas 24(3): 35-42. Doi.: 10.7818/ECOS.2015.24-3.06 Two opposite tendencies govern land use worldwide: intensification and abandonment. Land abandonment represents an opportunity for ecosystem recovery, an urgent need due to the current environmental crisis. Dispersal communities play a key role in the recovery of old fields, as they mobilize seeds that serve as the primary source for the regeneration of woody plants. Recent studies have pointed out the special relevance of frugivorous mammals for seed dispersal in degraded environments such as old fields. This is due to morphological and behavioural traits of frugivorous mammals which make this dispersal guild especially effective. Frugivorous mammals are generally bigger body-sized, use bigger home ranges and are able to perform longer dispersal distances than other frugivorous, thus dispersing a greater quantity of seeds in old fields. Once a seed arrives to an old field several stages until recruitment should be overcome (post-dispersal predation, germination, survival and growth). Seed dispersal by frugivorous mammals favors the success of dispersed seeds to be recruited due to: i. At the inter-specific level, frugivorous mammals do not present gape width limitations, thereby dispersing a wide range of fleshy fruited species. At the intra-specific level they are able to consume all fruit/seed size ranges while smaller frugivorous, like small to medium sized birds, usually select small fruits which may hamper recruitment, and ii Mammal frugivorous, specially carnivores, deposit seeds in microhabitats specially suitable for woody plants recruitment (e.g. shrubs). Overall, mammal frugivorous are key members of dispersal communities promoting regeneration dynamics in old fields thereby their ecological function should be considered from a management and restoration perspective.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is an intensively topic studied in ecophysiology for the purpose of understanding energy budgets of the species, variations of energy expenditure during their diary activities and physiological acclimatization to the environment. Establishing how the metabolism is assembled to the environment can provide valuable data to improve conservation strategies of endangered species. In this sense, metabolic differences associated to habitats have been widely reported in the interspecific level, however little is known about the intraspecific view of BMR under an environmental gradient. In this study, we researched the effect of the habitat on metabolic rate of an Iberian endemic species: Iberomys cabrerae. Animals were captured in different subpopulations of its altitudinal range and their MR was studied over a thermal gradient. MR was analyzed through a Linear Mixed Model (LMM) in which, in addition to thermal effects, the bioclimatic zone and sex also influenced the metabolism of the species. The beginning of thermoneutrality zone was set on 26.5°C and RMR was 2.3ml O2g(-1)h(-1), intermediate between both bioclimatic zones. Supramediterranean subpopulations started the Tlc earlier (24.9°C) and had higher RMR than the mesomediterranean ones (26.9°C). The thermal environment together with primary productivity conditions could explain this difference in the metabolic behaviour of the Cabrera voles.

Urbanization causes wildlife habitat loss, fragmentation, and the replacement of specialist species by generalists and/or exotic taxa. Because mesocarnivores are particularly vulnerable to habitat modifications, the rapid expansion of urban areas and the increasing trend for ex-urban development occurring in Mediterranean ecosystems may be major drivers of change in mesocarnivore communities. We combined camera trapping and sign surveys to quantify the richness and relative abundance of a set of wild and domestic mesocarnivores. We quantified these variables controlling for the gradient of urbanism, ex-urbanism, and other environmental variables in patches of natural vegetation in the region of Madrid (central Spain), and a non-urbanized control area ~220 km south of Madrid city. Using conditional autoregressive models (CAR) and model selection procedures, we found that urbanization influenced mesocarnivore community composition but this influence was not detrimental for all the species tested. Generalist carnivores such as the red fox Vulpes vulpes were more abundant in urban and ex-urban areas. Ex-urban development creates overlapping areas between wild and domestic species (such as the domestic cat Felis catus and the wildcat Felis silvestris) but contact between wild and domestic carnivores in natural areas is unlikely. Detection of species in the control area was very low. Therefore, the impact of urbanization in causing changes in mesocarnivore communities may be less than other factors such as illegal predator culling.

The honey badger (Mellivora capensis) is a medium-sized carnivore distributed throughout Africa to the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Turkmenistan, and India. However, available information on its ecology is very scarce. We studied its feeding ecology in the remote north-western Sahara Desert, based on the contents of 125 fecal samples collected during large scale surveys. Samples were confirmed to belong to honey badgers by camera trapping and genetic analyses. Barely 18 prey species were detected. The diet primarily consisted of spiny-tailed lizards Uromastyx nigriventris and U. dispar (72% of volume in scats). Secondary prey items were arthropods (14%), small mammals (8%), other reptiles (4%), and eggs (0.8%). Some small geographic and temporal differences were related to the consumption of beetle larvae and rodents as alternative prey. Camera trapping and distance sampling surveys showed that diel activities did not overlap between honey badgers and spiny-tailed lizards, suggesting that badgers primarily dig lizards out of their burrows when inactive. Consumption of spiny lizards by other sympatric meso-carnivores was &lt, 6.1% of occurrence (223 analyzed scats), the honey badger behaved as a trophic specialist in the Sahara, probably thanks to exclusive anatomical adaptations for digging. We discuss the role of this circumstance minimizing the exploitative competition, which could allow the survival of this large mustelid in this low productive and highly competitive environment.

Anthropogenic noise is a growing ubiquitous and pervasive pollutant as well as a recognised stressor that spreads throughout natural ecosystems. However, there is still an urgent need for the assessment of noise impact on natural ecosystems. This article presents a multidisciplinary study which made it possible to isolate noise due to road traffic to evaluate it as a major driver of detrimental effects on wildlife populations. A new indicator has been defined: AcED (the acoustic escape distance) and faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) were extracted from roe deer faecal samples as a validated indicator of physiological stress in animals moving around in two low-traffic roads that cross a National Park in Spain. Two key findings turned out to be relevant in this study: (i) road identity (i.e. road type defined by traffic volume and average speed) and AcED were the variables that best explained the FCM values observed in roe deer, and (ii) FCM concentration was positively related to increasing traffic volume (road type) and AcED values. Our results suggest that FCM analysis and noise mapping have shown themselves to be useful tools in multidisciplinary approaches and environmental monitoring. Furthermore, our findings aroused the suspicion that low-traffic roads (

Climate change is not only evident, but its implications on biodiversity are already patent. The scientific community has delved into the limitations and capabilities of species to face changes in climatic conditions through experimental studies and, primarily, Species Distribution Models (SDMs). Nevertheless, the widespread use of SDMs comes with some intrinsic assumptions, such as niche conservatism, which are not always true. Alternatively, the fossil record can provide additional data to solve the uncertainties of species’ responses to climate change based on their history. Using a combined environmental (niche overlap indices) and geographical approach (temporal transferability of SDMs), we assessed the niche conservatism of Microtus cabrerae throughout its evolutionary history: the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene. The set of analyses performed within this timeframe provides a broad view pointing to a shift in the realized climatic niche of the species. Specifically, M. cabrerae exhibited a broader niche during glacial times than interglacial times, expanding towards novel conditions. Hence, the species might have developed an adaptive ability, as a consequence of mechanisms of local adaptation or natural pressures, or just be preadapted to cope with the novel environment, due to expansion into an unfilled portion of the niche. Nevertheless, the more restricted realized niche during last interglacial times reveals that the species could be close to its physiological limits.

The Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon Linnaeus, 1758) is a medium-sized carnivore that experienced remarkable geographic expansion over the last 3 decades in the Iberian Peninsula. In this study, we investigated the association of species-related and abiotic factors with spleen weight (as a proxy for immunocompetence) in the species. We assessed the relationship of body condition, sex, age, season, and environmental conditions with spleen weight established for 508 hunted specimens. Our results indicate that the effects of sex and season outweigh those of all other variables, including body condition. Spleen weight is higher in males than in females, and heavier spleens are more likely to be found in spring, coinciding with the highest period of investment in reproduction due to mating, gestation, birth, and lactation. Coupled with the absence of an effect of body condition, our findings suggest that spleen weight variation in this species is mostly influenced by life-history traits linked to reproduction, rather than overall energy availability, winter immunoenhancement, or energy partitioning effects, and prompt further research focusing on this topic.

Land abandonment due to increasing depopulation of rural areas is an ongoing trend in developed countries worldwide. Abandoned lands represent an opportunity for ecosystem recovery, an urgent need for biodiversity conservation. Seed dispersal services provided by animals are a key feature for this process. Different dispersers may differentially contribute to plant recruitment under different ecological conditions, leading to complementary dispersal services. We studied the dispersal services, quantified as the contribution to plant recruitment, provided by the main dispersal guilds of Spanish juniper Juniperus thurifera L.: small-to-medium-sized strongly frugivorous birds (thrushes) and medium-to-large-sized carnivorous mammals (red fox and stone marten). To do this, we studied seed fate from seed dispersal to seedling survival during 2 years and estimated seed dispersal effectiveness (seedlings recruited per m2) in two ecological contexts derived from ecosystem recovery after a historical period of degradation: remnant woodlands and old fields. Results showed a clear shift in the contribution to plant recruitment between these guilds, resulting in complementary and non-redundant dispersal services. Thrushes were the main contributors to plant recruitment in woodlands (73%), leading to population growth but with a reduced impact on the colonization of old fields where carnivores contributed to 80% of recruitment (42% red fox, 38% stone marten). The dispersal complementarity observed for thrushes and carnivores is a consequence of their functional diversity, mainly driven by their differences in feeding and movement behaviour. Synthesis and applications. The combination of short-distance, strongly frugivorous dispersers (e.g. passerine birds) together with big generalist frugivores with long-distance movements (e.g. carnivorous mammals) maintained (i) effective seed dispersal services in remnant woodlands and (ii) the connectivity between patches promoting old fields colonization and woodland expansion. Thus, it is in heterogeneous landscape mosaics ecosystems (e.g. agro-environments) where functionally diverse disperser communities play a key role in ecosystem recovery. By performing effective dispersal services across an array of habitat types, functionally diverse disperser communities assist natural restoration of human-impacted ecosystems all over the world. Thus, dispersal communities provide an important ecosystem service that may replace costly human-mediated restoration projects. The combination of short-distance, strongly frugivorous dispersers (e.g. passerine birds) together with big generalist frugivores with long-distance movements (e.g. carnivorous mammals) maintained (i) effective seed dispersal services in remnant woodlands and (ii) the connectivity between patches promoting old fields colonization and woodland expansion. Thus, it is in heterogeneous landscape mosaics ecosystems (e.g. agro-environments) where functionally diverse disperser communities play a key role in ecosystem recovery. By performing effective dispersal services across an array of habitat types, functionally diverse disperser communities assist natural restoration of human-impacted ecosystems all over the world. Thus, dispersal communities provide an important ecosystem service that may replace costly human-mediated restoration projects., Funding was provided by the Spanish Ministries for Education (FPU-MEC grant) and Innovation and Science (projects: CGL2010-16388/BOS, Consolider-Montes/CSD2008_00040; VULGLO/CGL2010-22180-C03-03 and CALCOFIS/CGL2009-13013), and by the Community of Madrid project REMEDINAL 2 (CM-S2009/AMB-1783).

Colonization of abandoned lands by woody vegetation may be a great opportunity for ecosystem recovery given the current and future trend of land abandonment. This may help to reverse the generalized condition of ecosystem degradation of developed countries which is an urgent need. However, ecosystem recovery in abandoned lands can be seriously limited by biotic and abiotic factors. Indentify such factors and determine the relevant spatial scales at which they operate will help to understand natural patterns of colonization of abandoned lands and may be useful to guide restoration activities. We used Spanish juniper remnant woodlands and old fields recently colonized by the species to assess the variation in post-dispersal seed predation and environmental suitability to plant recruitment. These biotic and abiotic factors are two of the most limiting for vegetation recovery in abandoned lands, at the regional and local spatial scale. We found that recruitment was controlled by factors operating at different spatial scales in a hierarchical manner along different stages of the process. The regional scale was determinant for post-dispersal seed predation and seedling abundance which was, in turn, controlled by environmental suitability at the local spatial scale. Post-dispersal seed removal was higher in old fields than in mature woodlands, hence increasing seed limitation, a pervasive constraint for plant recruitment in abandoned lands. Environmental suitability for plant recruitment did not decrease as a result of previous farming uses at the regional scale, a common pattern in areas not subjected to intensive farming practices. Abandoned lands in Mediterranean areas seem to have a strong potential for ecosystem recovery being the biotic factors (e.g. seed availability) more limiting than the abiotic ones when non-intensive farming practices have been performed. This together with predictions of increase in land abandonment in low productive areas makes old fields especially relevant from an ecosystem recovery perspective. © 2014 Elsevier B.V., Gema Escribano-Ávila was supported by a FPU-MEC doctoral grant from the Spanish Ministry of Education (http://www.educacion.gob.es/portadahtml). Funding was provided by the Spanish Ministry for Innovation and Science (http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/) with research projects CGL2010-16388/BOS, Consolider Montes (CSD2008_00040), VULGLO (CGL2010-22180-C03-03), and CALCOFIS (CGL2009-13013), and by the Community of Madrid project REMEDINAL 2 (CM-S2009/AMB-1783).

Understanding the factors determining the spatial distribution of species is a major challenge in ecology and conservation. This study tests the use of ecosystem functioning variables, derived from satellite imagery data, to explore their potential use in modeling the distribution of the European badger in Mediterranean arid environments. We found that the performance of distribution models was enhanced by the inclusion of variables derived from the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), such as mean EVI (a proxy for primary production), the coefficient of variation of mean EVI (an indicator of seasonality), and the standard deviation of mean EVI (representing spatial heterogeneity of primary production). We also found that distributions predicted by remote sensing data were consistent with the ecological preferences of badger in those environments, which may be explained by the link between EVI-derived variables and the spatial and temporal variability of food resource availability. In conclusion, we suggest the incorporation of variables associated with ecosystem function into species modeling exercises as a useful tool for improving decision-making related to wildlife conservation and management.

The feral domestic cat (Felis catus) is considered to be one of the most damaging introduced predators, responsible for the decline and extinction of numerous native species. Advanced satellite technologies enable the study of resource selection by small mammals at fine-scales through remote data. These tools can improve understanding of the spatial ecology of introduced predators in ecologically sensitive areas, such as where cats pose a threat to native species and where improvement of predator control methods is required. We studied fine-scale resource selection by feral cats in the ecologically important New Zealand braided-river ecosystem, where they pose a risk to endangered native ground-nesting birds. We collected 34 location datasets from 21 cats fitted with lightweight global positioning system-collars, and extracted landscape variables from a resource map created using very high spatial resolution satellite imagery (Quickbird) and object-base imagery analysis for image classification. We modelled second-order seasonal and annual resource selection functions and characterized landscape composition of highly-used areas using compositional analysis. At a population level, cats generally selected fine-scale landscapes that are important for their primary prey rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and for refugia. An external validation of the annual model using data from cats tracked in an independent study showed a positive correlation with model predictions. Individual cats also visited habitats used by native ground-nesting birds, and thus pose a threat to them through secondary predation or individual specialization. Cat control operations should therefore focus around areas of concentrated ground-nesting bird activity and in areas identified as high-use by cats.

According to the Cort-Fitness Hypothesis, higher stress levels (glucocorticoids) in vertebrates are correlated to lower fitness. However, recent studies have failed to validate this hypothesis. A proposed wider framework suggests that reproduction can be perceived as an overload adds up to other environmental challenges that individuals must adjust to. In this case, elevated glucocorticoids could help individuals to allocate resources to reproduction without comprising other functions, leading to the expectation of a positive cort-fitness relationship. This has been proposed as the Cort-Adaptation Hypothesis. Stress levels result from a complex interaction between the environment and the neuroendocrine system of animals. Accounting for physiological functions involved in how animals cope with their environment would help to clarify the relationship between glucocorticoids and animal performance. We used roe deer (. Capreolus capreolus) inhabiting diverse habitats in the Iberian Peninsula to: i) test the Cort-Fitness and Cort-Adaptation hypotheses by indexing fitness using a comprehensive physiological approach which takes into account fundamental physiological functions and their trade-offs; and ii) evaluate the link between primary productivity and individuals' condition in a seasonal environment. We evaluated spatial and temporal variation in stress levels, reproductive hormone levels, nutritional status and immune function from fecal samples collected in 2010. Lower stress levels were related to better condition in non-reproductive seasons but not to higher primary productivity. In contrast, stress levels were always positively related to reproductive condition, which was better in most productive habitats. Summer and winter were the less productive seasons and the more challenging for the species in the habitat gradient studied. In winter, reproductive condition traded off against immune function being biased toward immune function in less productive habitats. In summer reduced primary productivity limited roe deer nutritional and immunological condition but not reproductive condition. Overall our results match both the Cort-Fitness and Cort-Adaptation Hypotheses. © 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS.