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Teachers of students with visual impairments clearly have an important opportunity to promote graphics literacy skills for students with visual impairments through providing descriptions to make educational content accessible. Guidelines for appropriate image descriptions have been developed by the National Center on Accessible Materials (NCAM), a leader in accessible multimedia design (The Carl and Ruth Shapiro Family National Center for Accessible Media, n.d.; Freed et al., 2015; Wall Emerson & Anderson, 2018a, 2018b). Ideally, teachers of students with visual impairments would also help students to develop graph interpretation skills by asking them to explain, elaborate, or state relationships between elements, in addition to locating information in the graphic (Buchanan Hill, 2016; Panayiotou et al., 2014; Sahin, 2015; Zebehazy & Wilton, 2014a). However, to date, little is known about whether teachers' descriptions are consistent with established guidelines for accessibility, or how they help students locate and interpret graphical information. In this preliminary study, the authors asked teachers of students with visual impairments to describe graphics to two hypothetical students: a print reader with low vision and a braille reader. The use of hypothetical students was adopted to allow for a comparison of descriptions across teachers.

Introduction: Because of the preponderance of visual images, many mathematics texts are wholly or largely inaccessible to students who are blind. This study investigated how much description is sufficient to communicate math content in different types of images. Methods: Representative math textbooks from grades five, eight, and 11, aligned to the Common Core, were selected. Mutually exclusive and exhaustive image categories were identified. Clear examples of each image category were chosen, and digital files were created containing the examples and surrounding textual material. Files replicated the printed page as closely as possible, and all elements (words, math expressions, and descriptions of images) were readable by JAWS. Forty-four students who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or had low vision) listened to the math pages and answered questions related to the content contained in the images. Results: Students answered content-related questions better with more description, but across four description conditions with varying amounts of description the highest correct rate was low (29%). In looking at individual image categories, students had the most correct answers for number lines (41.0%). Rates of 20% to 33% correct were demonstrated for image categories of shapes, tables, line graphs, bar graphs, and ray diagrams. Correct rates for equations, pie charts, and maps were inconsistent or lower than 15%. Students were positive about math and did not indicate many problems with math texts. Discussion: Descriptions of visual images can communicate important math information, but there are images for which no level of description is sufficient. Many students in the study were not aware of how much visual math content to which they were not provided access. Implications for practitioners: Math texts need to be more accessible for students who are visually impaired. Although describing visual images can improve access to content, that may not be sufficient. Materials should be provided in several formats simultaneously so students can approach material in the mode that fits their needs in a variety of contexts.

This study examined eight variables of the Teaching Age-Appropriate Personal Skills (TAPS) checklist (Pogrund et al., 1995). The goal was to identify potential orientation and mobility (O&M) factors to represent constructs underlying the data that could be used in the future to better research the college readiness of youths who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or have low vision). In order to carry out such an analysis, a dataset with a large number of participants is needed. The TAPS checklist referred to in this investigation was administered to youths ages 15 and 16 years as part of the second National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS2), a large study carried out from 2000 to 2010 (SRI International, 2000). The authors used an exploratory factor analysis, a statistical technique that accounts for shared variance between variables in a population of interest, to reduce the number of variables in a large collection of data.

Introduction: Visually impaired students (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) have difficulty accessing curricular material in mathematical textbooks because many mathematics texts have visual images that contain important content information that are not transcribed or described in digital versions of the texts. However, little is known about the extent to which this issue exists within texts and what sort of information is contained in visual material in mathematics texts. This article describes a process undertaken to classify images in a selection of math textbooks that are currently being used in grades 5, 8, and 11. Methods: Representative textbooks were chosen that aligned with Common Core Standards. An exhaustive and mutually exclusive set of image categories was developed, researchers became reliable on coding procedures, and then all images in the representative texts were coded. Results: The most common images involved student interest, motivation, and organization, but contained little or no math content. The second most common area of image categories often contained large amounts of math content but were difficult to describe succinctly or might have been described without including important mathematical information. This grouping included tables, line graphs, and images specifically related to a single question. The final group of less frequently appearing images included ray or line diagrams, number lines, pie charts, bar graphs, and maps. Discussion: To improve access to visual math content, the focus should be on images that appear frequently and contain math content such as tables, scatter or line graphs, shapes, equations, and images specifically related to a single question. Less common image categories such as models, line diagrams, pictures of calculator keys, and number lines lend themselves easily to description. Implications for practitioners: Optimization of limited instructional time would be accomplished by having teachers focus on students' understanding of the most common types of images, such as tables and line graphs.

Introduction: A new market trend offers long canes for individuals with visual impairments in a variety of colors; however, the impact of these colors is unknown to orientation and mobility (O&M) specialists and individuals who are blind or who have low vision. The authors examined the impact of cane color on drivers' yielding behaviors; also, cane display effectiveness was assessed. Methods: At traffic signal-controlled intersections, drivers' yielding responses (yield-no yield and seconds to crosswalk) were recorded by two raters when a pedestrian presented one of two conditions (display and flagging) with four differently colored long canes (white, black, yellow, and green). Results: In trials where the pedestrian used a flagging cane technique, the white cane achieved 290% more yielding than the green cane, 100% more yielding than the yellow cane, and 40% more yielding than the black. Statistical differences were found between the white-with-red cane and the yellow and green canes. The measure of drivers' latency for moving forward was not statistically different between trials in which a pedestrian displayed a white cane at the crosswalk and trials in which no pedestrians were present. Discussion: Cane color appears to have a substantial effect on drivers' yielding responses. The results also indicate only a slight driver response to a highly visible cane display, confirming the results of previous studies that recommended more potent pedestrian movements to mitigate the threat from turning vehicles. Implications for practitioners: O&M specialists and cane travelers need to consider the options for cane color when using a cane to cross streets. A white cane, flagged at the onset of the walk signal, can achieve more desirable responses from drivers than can the long canes of other colors. More effective cane behaviors exhibited by pedestrians who are visually impaired should always be considered by O&M instructors in order to influence drivers.

Over the last decade, many innovations have significantly changed the classroom. As a result, the authors believe the roles of vision professionals, primarily teachers of students with visual impairments, orientation and mobility (O&M) specialists, and braille transcribers, have likewise changed drastically in that time period. Although the core mission of these professionals remains advancing the independence and capabilities of individuals who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or have low vision), the scope of practice in the field of visual impairment has undergone shifts that require the attention of fellow practitioners and professional training programs. This thought piece is a result of observations from the field and discussions with fellow colleagues and stakeholders who are visually impaired, including a focused discussion held with attendees of the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AER) conference in the summer of 2016. This paper is not intended to reflect a stance but rather to open a discussion on updating professionals' roles within the field of educational and rehabilitative vision services. More specifically, addresses changes to the tools used to accomplish the mission of the field of visual impairment, the way its professionals instruct students and train future personnel, and the professional linkages that must be forged for members of the field of visual impairment to be successful in their work. Some of the principal changes discussed in this paper include: (1) the effect of ubiquitous computing on daily living and learning experiences; (2) the increased prevalence of multimedia in the classroom and community; (3) advancements in delivery options for accessible educational materials; (4) changes in the built environment (both physical and digital); and (5) the need for more transdisciplinary collaborations, including partnerships in the design, technology, engineering, and architecture fields.

This study investigated practices in the production and distribution of braille and large-print textbooks, highlighting changes in production and delivery systems from 2000 to 2004. The findings indicate that fewer states use production models for the statewide acquisition and distribution of special materials and that there is a greater reliance on materials from the American Printing House for the Blind and a greater use of publishers' electronic files for production.

Different materials that are used in manufacturing long cane shafts were assessed for their ability to transmit vibration and their sensitivity to tactile information, flexibility, and durability. It was found that the less flexible a cane shaft is, the better it transmits vibrations that are useful for discriminating surface textures and that shafts with less weight transmit energy at higher natural frequencies. A combination of decreased flexibility and decreased weight in a cane appears to optimize the cane's usefulness in discriminating the characteristics of surfaces.

In a series of experiments, canes of different lengths, weights, and weight distributions were assessed to determine the effect of these characteristics on various performance measures. The results indicate that the overall weight of a cane and the distribution of weight along a cane's shaft do not affect a person's performance, but accuracy does decline with the amount of time a person wields the cane, so a heavier cane may exacerbate this fatigue.

The author reflects on the similarity of his start as academic editor in chief of the "Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness" (JVIB) with those of previous job holders as of July 2024. Topics discussed include the backgrounds and assistance of such predecessors as Dennis Brookshire, Jane Erin, and Alan Koenig, and the tenure and leadership of Dr. Sandra Lewis. Also noted are introductions to current articles on topics including visual impairment and haptics, and service provision.

Introduction: The learning media assessment (LMA) process is the mechanism professionals use to determine a student's optimal learning and reading media. Currently, no tool has been validated for the purpose of conducting the LMA process. Methods: A Delphi approach was used whereby a panel of identified experts in the LMA process went through iterative phases recommending items to be included in the LMA process and voting on keeping, changing, or deleting items until a final list of agreed upon items was established. Results: At the completion of five rounds of voting and amending items, the final list of agreed upon items included 2 general goals, 66 items, and 18 acceptable modifications to the LMA process. The items to be included in an LMA process were categorized into logistical items to be noted (9 items), LMA procedural characteristics (11 items), materials to be used (2 items), information to be gathered (20 items), student medical/visual characteristics (8 items), student reading or academic characteristics (10 items), and student technology and literacy tool use (6 items). Eighteen acceptable modifications or adjustments that could be made to assessment procedures were also agreed upon. Discussion: The framework of what is critical in the LMA process, as shown in this Delphi study, can be used to assess the validity of LMA tools. Implications for Practitioners: Practitioners can use the framework built by this Delphi process to evaluate the validity of LMA tools they use. Practitioners can assess the tools they use by asking if all the validated content areas are addressed, if validated procedures are being followed, and if validated accommodations are in place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Transition-age youths with visual impairments have higher rates of unemployment than their peers without impairment, and factors associated with success after graduation have been examined; however, it is unknown whether these factors remain influential across the first decade after exiting high school. Methods: Five waves of the 10-year National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 data were used for this analysis. The following factors--number of years since leaving high school, specific year exiting high school, paid work experience during high school, and high school completion--were examined for their longitudinal relationship with successful outcomes using generalized estimating equations. Results: Specific year exiting high school, paid work experience during high school, and high school completion were shown to be predictive of successful outcomes (as measured by post-high school employment or enrollment in post-secondary school or both). Youths with visual impairments who left high school in 2000-2002 were 2.2 times more likely to be successful when compared to those who left in 2006-2008 (p

For many years, increasing caseloads for vision professionals have caused concerns about the impact on educational services. Average caseload sizes in the literature have remained fairly consistent across decades, with 19.5 students per professional in the 1980s (Pelton, 1986), 18 students in the 1990s (Griffin-Shirley, McGregor, and Jacobson, 1999), and 22 students in the 2000s (Griffin-Shirley et al., 2004). In contrast, the optimal caseload for vision professionals has been approximated as eight students (Mason & Davidson, 2000). Goal 4 of the National Agenda for the Education of Children and Youths with Visual Impairments, Including Those with Multiple Disabilities noted that caseloads are based on the assessed needs of students (American Foundation for the Blind, 2003). An example of such a rubric for determining service delivery levels was developed by the Atlantic Provinces Special Education Authority (see, for example, MacCuspie, 1998). In 1995, the Michigan Department of Education's Low Incidence Outreach office began adapting a model developed in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, that used student and environmental characteristics to determine service delivery levels. The task force that was created to adapt the model developed a set of "in house" severity rating scales to determine optimal vision service levels. The scales were revised in 2008 based on feedback from surveys of Michigan vision professionals and with input from professionals across the United States. The scales are now popular enough that national surveys of how the scales are being used seemed appropriate. They are available online at the Low Incidence Outreach website: http:// mde-lio.cenmi.org/Services/StudentsWitha VisualImpairment/MichiganSeverityRating Scales.aspx. The current study reports on the responses from a cross section of orientation and mobility (O&M) instructors and teachers of children with visual impairments to demonstrate how the scales are perceived and being used by professionals. The study presented here also reflects an initial attempt at determining content validity of the scales. The four severity rating scales assessed were the Orientation and Mobility Severity Rating Scale (OMSRS); the Orientation and Mobility Severity Rating Scale Plus (OMSRS), which is for use with children with multiple disabilities; the Vision Services Severity Rating Scale (VSSRS); and the Vision Services Severity Rating Scale Plus (VSSRS), which is for use with children with multiple disabilities.

Although individuals who are blind have used a stick or a cane for their independent travel since the early years of human history, designs for modern long canes did not appear until World War II, when the systematic long cane techniques were developed by Hoover (1962). Ergonomic factors, such as the length of the cane, may affect how well a cane user can detect the presence of obstacles and changes in surface elevation, including drop-offs. How the length of a cane may affect the detection of drop-offs is of particular interest because there appear to be different opinions on this matter among cane users. According to the traditional method (called the "sternum method"), a proper cane length is defined as the vertical distance from the ground to 2 inches above the xiphoid process (La Grow & Weessies, 1994). In a study conducted with 10 adult cane users who were visually impaired (that is, those who were blind or had low vision), Rodgers and Wall Emerson (2005) reported that the use of a standard-length cane, measured by the sternum method, allowed the users to detect drop-offs significantly better than with the canes that were either 5%-15% shorter or 10%-20% longer than the standard length. However, some cane travelers have advocated for a cane that is substantially longer than the standard length. In this study, the authors investigated whether the length of the cane affects the detection of drop-offs. They also examined whether there is an interaction between the length of a cane and the depth of a drop-off. (Contains 2 figures.)

Participants who are blind discriminated vehicle paths and made crossing decisions for hybrid vehicles with and without artificial sounds added. Several artificial sounds matched the performance of tasks observed with vehicles with internal combustion engines. These data, with previous vehicle-detection results, indicate that selecting artificial sounds for "quiet" vehicles based only on detection data is problematic. (Contains 4 tables and 6 figures.)

This article examines the Alphabetic Braille Contracted Braille Study in relation to the dimensions of collaborative research: extent, intensity, substance, heterogeneity, velocity, formality, and productivity. It also discusses the dimensions of financing research and researchers' attitudes. The overall consensus is that the study would not have been as comprehensive without collaboration. (Contains 1 table.)

Pedestrians with visual impairments need to cross streets where traffic signals and traffic signage are not present. This study examined the influences of several interventions, including a pedestrian's use of a mobility cane, on the behavior of drivers when they were expected to yield to a pedestrian crossing at an uncontrolled crossing. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

This study examined the interaction effects of the amount of practice and the cane technique used in drop-off detection with a sample of 32 adults who were blind. The advantage of the constant contact technique over the two-point touch technique was significantly greater for the less experienced cane users than for the more experienced ones. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

This article presents the findings of a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 that explored the predictive association between training in access technology and performance on the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Academic Achievement: III. The results indicated that the use of access technology had a limited predictive relationship to performance on tests. Practical implications are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

The Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study examined the reading and writing skills of young braille-reading students. Students who were introduced to more contractions earlier in instruction performed better on reading measures, such as vocabulary, decoding, and comprehension, but all students did well in spelling. Thus, the authors conclude that literacy instruction should focus primarily on basic reading skills. (Contains 6 tables and 5 figures.)

The Alphabetic Braille and Contracted Braille Study found no difference between high and low achievers in the development of literacy skills on such measures as age, etiology of visual impairment, family attitudes and behaviors regarding literacy activities, class size, and time spent with a teacher of students with visual impairments. Some differences between the groups were seen on measures of social interactions, the introduction of contractions, and time spent with paraeducators, but the most demonstrated difference was the provision of consistent structured reading instruction. (Contains 7 tables.)

This study compared the drop-off detection performance with the two-point touch and constant contact cane techniques using a repeated-measures design with a convenience sample of 15 cane users with visual impairments. The constant contact technique was superior to the two-point touch technique in the drop-off detection rate and the 50% detection threshold. The findings may help an orientation and mobility instructor select an appropriate technique for a particular client or training situation. (Contains 1 table and 4 figures.)

This study assessed the ability of people with visual impairments to reliably detect oncoming traffic at crossing situations with no traffic control. In at least one condition, the participants could not hear vehicles to afford a safe crossing time when sound levels were as quiet as possible. Significant predictors of detection accounted for a third of the variation in the detection time. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

The purpose of this descriptive study was to develop a computational fluency performance profile of 224 high school (Grades 9-12) students with mathematics disabilities (MD). Computational fluency performance was examined by grade-level expectancy (Grades 2-6) and skill area (whole numbers: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; rational numbers: fractions, decimals) using the "Mathematics Operations Test-Revised" (MOT-R). The findings indicated that these high school students with MD were fluent only in computational skills at the second- and third-grade levels. Computational fluency was found with most whole number basic facts in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Lack of computational fluency was demonstrated on many items dealing with subtraction of multiple digits or items requiring regrouping, most multiplication and division items, and rational number items involving fractions and decimals. The results are discussed in regard to instructional programs and curriculum organization for high school students with MD.

The National Center for Accessible Media has developed a technology and protocol for inserting extended, enhanced descriptions of visually based concepts into artificially paused digital video. These "eDescriptions" describe material not fully explained by a narrator and provide analogies and explanation specifically designed for students who are visually impaired. In two experiments, fourth-grade students with visual impairments listened to video clips of narrated, age-appropriate curricular material with eDescriptions inserted along different organizational frameworks, as well as video with only standard narration. Students were first assessed on prior knowledge of the content to be covered in the videos. After three weeks, each student listened to the videos and answered questions assessing content acquired from the presentations. Students performed better on content tests for material that included eDescriptions than for material that only had standard narration. This effect was strongest when eDescriptions were placed prior to relevant material in a video. While the most effective strategy was using descriptions followed by the relevant video, both students and teachers preferred hearing a word first, followed by its definition. Other elements determined important to the creation of effective eDescriptions included selection of developmentally age appropriate vocabulary, length of individual eDescriptions, and overall length of a video when eDescriptions were added. The usefulness of eDescriptions for increasing acquisition of content information points to the need for further research into auditory description. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

The author explores the concepts of validity and reliability on the service and tool a visually impaired student should receive from a vision professional. Topics discussed include on the distinction between a valid tool and a reliable tool, the possible evaluation of validity and reliability in different ways, and the uses of construct validity and criterion validity. Also noted are the evaluation of reliability by way of test-retest, inter-method, or internal consistency.

The article presents a discussion of a analytical approach known as meta-analysis. Topics include how a research question is addressed in a meta-analysis, difference between a meta-analysis and a systematic review, and suggestions for a deeper, more thorough treatment of elements to be considered when conducting a systematic review.

The article discusses research which examined the nutritional status, daily nutrition intake and dietary patterns of Korean adults with low vision and blindness using K-means clustering. The study determined differences in nutrition as a function of visual status and compared nutritional pattens in people with and without visual impairments. The researchers defined different clusters of participants according to their consumption of different food groups.