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While some economic models exist on the nexus of military spending and economic growth, and comprehensive theory on the mechanisms through which militarization affects gender inequality, there are no structural models to show how military spending affects economic growth through gender inequality. This paper introduces a feminist-Kaleckian model to examine this mechanism. The main implication of the suggested model is that higher military spending is likely to increase gender inequality, and thereby reduce economic growth. This is because the marginal propensity to consume between men and women is different and military spending reduces the productive capacity of the economy in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on Arrighi, we empirically investigate whether financialization and militarization are mutually reinforcing phenomena in the United States. Military spending during the 1950–1960s in the United States counteracted the stagnation of the monopolistic stage of capitalism. Monopoly capital was transformed into finance monopoly capital as the intensity of financial capital increased during the late 1970s in response to stagnation. Considering alternative financialization variables and the profit rate in the financial sector, and using several parametric and nonparametric methods, we found a significant relationship between financialization and militarization in the United States for 1949–2019. The results suggest that the rise in financialization is parallel to the decline in the profit rates, leading to larger military expenditure in total, but with relatively smaller share in GDP. JEL Classification: C14, E11, G32 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addresses the underexplored dimension of the relationship between military expenditures and gender inequality, drawing upon the insights of feminist security and international relations scholars. The influence of militarization on gender inequality is profound, manifesting itself significantly in both conflict and peacetime situations. The destruction of essential infrastructure further restricts women's access to vital resources. In peacetime, the convergence of militarization and patriarchy reinforces women's secondary roles in society, while higher military expenditures can divert resources from social spending, disproportionately affecting women and children reliant on public services. Despite extensive theoretical discussions, empirical studies on this nexus are limited. This paper contributes by presenting original evidence using a comprehensive dataset spanning 1991–2019, examining the Female Labor Income Share across over 100 countries. Findings reveal that militarization correlates with reduced the Female Labor Income Share, underscoring the urgency of addressing this critical linkage between militarization and gender inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two novel datasets of the size of the informal economy and income inequality, this study examines the effect of informality on income and wage inequality with special attention to the rates of profit. Covering 86 countries for 1960–2016, the study shows that informality and the rates of profit are positively associated with income inequality; however, the positive impact of profit rate on income inequality decreases as the size of informal economy increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]