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Associations of pesticide exposures during pre-conception with stillbirth have not been well explored. We linked Arizona pesticide use records with birth certificates from 2006-2020 and estimated associations of living within 500meters of any pyrethroid, organophosphate (OP), or carbamate pesticide applications during a 90 day pre-conception window or the first trimester, with stillbirth. We considered a binary measure of exposure (any exposure), as well as log-pounds and log-acres applied within 500m, in a negative control exposure framework with log-binomial regression. We included 1,237,750 births, 2,290 stillbirths, and 27 pesticides. During pre-conception, any exposure to pesticides were associated with stillbirth, including cyfluthrin (RR=1.97, 95% CI 1.17,3.32), zeta-cypermethrin (RR=1.81, 95%CI 1.20, 2.74), organophosphates as a class (RR=1.60, 95%CI 1.16, 2.19), malathion (RR=2.02, 95%CI 1.26, 3.24), carbaryl (RR=6.39, 95%CI 2.07, 19.74), and propamocarb hydrochloride (RR=7.72, 95%CI 1.10, 54.20) . During the first trimester, fenpropathrin (RR=4.36, 95%CI 1.09, 17.50), permethrin (RR=1.57, 95%CI 1.02, 2.42), organophosphates as a class (RR=1.50, 95%CI 1.11, 2.01), acephate (RR=2.31, 95%CI 1.22, 4.40), and formetanate hydrochloride (RR=7.22, 95%CI 1.03, 50.58) were associated with stillbirth. Interpretations were consistent when using continuous measures of pounds or acres of exposure. Pesticide exposures during pre-conception and first trimester may be associated with stillbirth., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Resistance management in pesticide use is critical, yet grower practices, especially pesticide mixing motivations, diverge from theoretical frameworks. This study analyzes 30 years of Arizona cotton growers' practices and pest manager insights to understand mixing trends., Results: Growers predominantly mix pesticides for spectrum or efficacy, not resistance management. This highlights a gap between theory and practice, emphasizing the complexity of real-world dynamics. A shift over time towards selective insecticides and integrated pest management (IPM), supported by extension education, has reduced reliance on broad-spectrum insecticides and increased opportunities to conserve the natural enemies of key pests. This reduced the frequency of insecticide use, a mutual goal of both IPM and resistance management. The availability and adoption of selective products with diverse modes of action, along with the resulting increases in biological control and refuges, likely has delayed or prevented resistances without emphasis on using mixtures specifically for resistance management. In a disrupted system exclusively dependent on broad-spectrum insecticides (1991-1995), 75% ± 5% of cotton area was sprayed with mixtures of these materials. With the availability of selective insecticides, few broad-spectrum products are used today and mixtures of insecticides are sprayed on only 36% ± 3% of the cotton area (2015-2020)., Conclusion: Although mixing has theoretical relevance, it is diminishing in stable systems with diverse modes of action and adherence to moderation principles. Arizona cotton guidance prioritizes multi-crop refuges over mixtures for resistance management. Integrated research and education, targeting professional pest managers, are pivotal in advancing resistance management without mixtures specifically designed to prevent or mitigate resistance. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Plot size is of practical importance in any integrated pest management (IPM) study that has a field component. Such studies need to be conducted at a scale relevant to species dynamics because their abundance and distribution in plots might vary according to plot size. An adequate plot size is especially important for researchers, technology providers and regulatory agencies in understanding effects of various insect control technologies on non-target arthropods. Plots that are too small might fail to detect potential harmful effects of these technologies due to arthropod movement and redistribution among plots, or from untreated areas and outside sources. The Arizona cotton system is heavily dependent on technologies for arthropod control, thus we conducted a 2-year replicated field experiment to estimate the optimal plot size for non-target arthropod studies in our system. Experimental treatments consisted of three square plot sizes and three insecticides in a full factorial. We established three plot sizes that measured 144 m2, 324 m2 and 576 m2. For insecticide treatments, we established an untreated check, a positive control insecticide with known negative effects on the arthropod community and a selective insecticide. We investigated how plot size impacts the estimation of treatment effects relative to community structure (27 taxa), community diversity, individual abundance, effect sizes, biological control function of arthropod taxa with a wide range of mobility, including Collops spp., Orius tristicolor, Geocoris spp., Misumenops celer, Drapetis nr. divergens and Chrysoperla carnea s.l.. Square 144 m2 plots supported similar results for all parameters compared with larger plots, and are thus sufficiently large to measure insecticidal effects on non-target arthropods in cotton. Our results are applicable to cotton systems with related pests, predators or other fauna with similar dispersal characteristics. Moreover, these results also might be generalizable to other crop systems with similar fauna., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.)

Following theories of emotional embodiment, the facial feedback hypothesis suggests that individuals' subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by their facial expressions. However, evidence for this hypothesis has been mixed. We thus formed a global adversarial collaboration and carried out a preregistered, multicentre study designed to specify and test the conditions that should most reliably produce facial feedback effects. Data from n = 3,878 participants spanning 19 countries indicated that a facial mimicry and voluntary facial action task could both amplify and initiate feelings of happiness. However, evidence of facial feedback effects was less conclusive when facial feedback was manipulated unobtrusively via a pen-in-mouth task., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Background: The population dynamics of polyphagous pests such as Bemisia argentifolii (B. tabaci MEAM1) are governed by complex, interacting factors involving its cultivated and wild host plants, seasonality, movement and demography. To understand mechanisms contributing to population development and pest success within the agroecosystem, contiguous multi-host field sites were established in three environmentally distinct areas in Arizona. Life tables quantified and partition models described mortality sources and rates for immature insect stages on each host plant., Results: Predation and dislodgement were the largest sources of marginal mortality, supplied the highest irreplaceable mortality and predation was the key factor. Rates of mortality were best predicted, in order, by source, temperature, host plant and season. Marginal mortality was highest for fourth-stage nymphs followed by eggs. Mortality rates were predicted in descending order by stage, temperature and season. Survivorship patterns varied among host plants, and generational mortality averaged 70% on spring cantaloupes but nearly 95% on all other hosts. Population density varied seasonally, persisting at low levels on winter hosts and expanding beginning in the spring; perennial hosts and weeds bridge populations year-round., Conclusion: Survival on winter hosts such as broccoli, albeit low, enables population continuity, whereas unusually high survivorship on spring crops like cantaloupe is an ecological release propelling population growth and driving regional dynamics in the summer and fall. This detailed understanding of mortality dynamics provides clues to the success of this invasive pest in our agroecosystems and facilitates opportunities for improved pest management at a broader landscape scale. © 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA., (© 2022 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.)

Critics have suggested that psychological research is characterized by a pervasive liberal bias, and this problem may be particularly acute in research on issues related to public policy. In this article, I consider the sources of bias in basic and applied research in the evaluation, conduct, and communication of research. Techniques are suggested for counteracting bias at each of these stages.

Invasive organisms pose a global threat and are exceptionally difficult to eradicate after they become abundant in their new habitats. We report a successful multitactic strategy for combating the pink bollworm ( Pectinophora gossypiella ), one of the world's most invasive pests. A coordinated program in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico included releases of billions of sterile pink bollworm moths from airplanes and planting of cotton engineered to produce insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). An analysis of computer simulations and 21 y of field data from Arizona demonstrate that the transgenic Bt cotton and sterile insect releases interacted synergistically to reduce the pest's population size. In Arizona, the program started in 2006 and decreased the pest's estimated statewide population size from over 2 billion in 2005 to zero in 2013. Complementary regional efforts eradicated this pest throughout the cotton-growing areas of the continental United States and northern Mexico a century after it had invaded both countries. The removal of this pest saved farmers in the United States $192 million from 2014 to 2019. It also eliminated the environmental and safety hazards associated with insecticide sprays that had previously targeted the pink bollworm and facilitated an 82% reduction in insecticides used against all cotton pests in Arizona. The economic and social benefits achieved demonstrate the advantages of using agricultural biotechnology in concert with classical pest control tactics., Competing Interests: Competing interest statement: B.E.T. and J.A.F. are coauthors of patents on engineered Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins (US10704059) and potentiating Bt toxins (US20090175974A1), respectively. T.J.D. is retired and was previously employed by Monsanto, Bayer CropScience, and BASF.

Aspects of the nutritional ecology and life histories of five predatory coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)-two arboreal predator species, Oenopia conglobata contaminata (Menetries) and Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus), and three herbaceous dwelling predator species, Coccinella undecimpunctata aegyptica (Reiche), Exochomus nigripennis (Erichson), and Hippodamia variegata (Goeze) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)-were compared when fed either Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Aphalaridae), the key psylla pest of pistachio trees, or Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a common aphid on herbaceous plants in pistachio orchards. The putative habitat preferences of four of the five coccinellids studied were consistent with their performance on the major herbivore present in those two habitats in terms of net reproductive rate. Oenopia conglobata contaminata and Ad. bipunctata showed higher net reproductive rates when fed on pistachio psylla prey, whereas C. undecimpunctata aegyptiaca and E. nigripennis had better reproductive output on aphid prey. Moreover, E. nigripennis was the most specialized of these generalist predators, eating more and reproducing better when fed aphids. Hippodamia variegata was relatively unaffected by the diet offered, suggesting greater ability to switch among herbivore prey and perhaps better potential as a biocontrol agent with abilities to exploit Ag. pistaciae without large life history tradeoffs., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Plant bugs (Lygus spp.) and thrips (Thrips spp.) are two of the most economically important insect pest groups impacting cotton production in the USA today, but are not controlled by current transgenic cotton varieties. Thus, seed or foliar-applied chemical insecticides are typically required to protect cotton from these pest groups. Currently, these pests are resistant to several insecticides, resulting in fewer options for economically viable management. Previous publications documented the efficacy of transgenic cotton event MON 88702 against plant bugs and thrips in limited laboratory and field studies. Here, we report results from multi-location and multi-year field studies demonstrating efficacy provided by MON 88702 against various levels of these pests., Results: MON 88702 provided a significant reduction in numbers of Lygus nymphs and subsequent yield advantage. MON 88702 also had fewer thrips and minimal injury. The level of control demonstrated by this transgenic trait was significantly better compared with its non-transgenic near-isoline, DP393, receiving insecticides at current commercial rates., Conclusion: The level of efficacy demonstrated here suggests that MON 88702, when incorporated into existing IPM programs, could become a valuable additional tool for management of Lygus and thrips in cotton agroecosystems experiencing challenges of resistance to existing chemical control strategies. © 2018 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2018 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

As the global population continues to expand, utilizing an integrated approach to pest management will be critically important for food security, agricultural sustainability, and environmental protection. Genetically engineered (GE) crops that provide protection against insects and diseases, or tolerance to herbicides are important tools that complement a diversified integrated pest management (IPM) plan. However, despite the advantages that GE crops may bring for simplifying the approach and improving efficiency of pest and weed control, there are also challenges for successful implementation and sustainable use. This paper considers how several GE traits, including those that confer protection against insects by expression of proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), traits that confer tolerance to herbicides, and RNAi-based traits that confer resistance to viral pathogens, can be key elements of a diversified IPM plan for several different crops in both developed and developing countries. Additionally, we highlight the importance of community engagement and extension, strong partnership between industry, regulators and farmers, and education and training programs, for achieving long-term success. By leveraging the experiences gained with these GE crops, understanding the limitations of the technology, and considering the successes and failures of GE traits in IPM plans for different crops and regions, we can improve the sustainability and versatility of IPM plans that incorporate these and future technologies.

Background: Knowledge of the nutritional ecology of predatory coccinellids is important for the selection of efficient biocontrol agents. We examined five species common in pistachio orchards and determined their nutritional indices when fed on the key psylla pest of the system, Agonoscena pistaciae, in contrast to an alternative prey common on herbaceous plants in orchards, Aphis gossypii., Results: Feeding experiments revealed that Oenopia conglobata contaminata and Adalia bipunctata may be more efficient as biocontrol agents for A. pistaciae than for A. gossypii, as A. bipunctata had a high efficiency of conversion of ingested food and a high relative growth rate and O. conglobata contaminata had a high consumption index on psylla prey. In contrast, the nutritional indices of Coccinella undecimpunctata aegyptica, Hippodamia variegata and Exochomus nigripennis suggest that A. gossypii was a more suitable host food., Conclusion: Where both the psyllids and the aphids occur in pistachio orchards, especially under conditions of unlimited access to A. gossypii, C. undecimpunctata aegyptica, H. variegata and E. nigripennis may prefer to move from psylla-infested leaves of pistachio trees and travel to and stay on weeds to feed on A. gossypii. The value of using nutritional ecology as a means of understanding and predicting biocontrol outcomes and selecting better candidates for mass rearing is discussed. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Researchers are concerned about whether manipulations have the intended effects. Many journals and reviewers view manipulation checks favorably, and they are widely reported in prestigious journals. However, the prototypical manipulation check is a verbal (rather than behavioral) measure that always appears at the same point in the procedure (rather than its order being varied to assess order effects). Embedding such manipulation checks within an experiment comes with problems. While we conceptualize manipulation checks as measures, they can also act as interventions which initiate new processes that would otherwise not occur. The default assumption that manipulation checks do not affect experimental conclusions is unwarranted. They may amplify, undo, or interact with the effects of a manipulation. Further, the use of manipulation checks in mediational analyses does not rule out confounding variables, as any unmeasured variables that correlate with the manipulation check may still drive the relationship. Alternatives such as non-verbal and behavioral measures as manipulation checks and pilot testing are less problematic. Reviewers should view manipulation checks more critically, and authors should explore alternative methods to ensure the effectiveness of manipulations.

Conservation biological control can be an effective tactic for minimizing insect-induced damage to agricultural production. In the Arizona cotton system, a suite of generalist arthropod predators provides critical regulation of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (MEAM1) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and other pests. Arthropod predator and B. tabaci populations were manipulated with a range of broad-spectrum and selective insecticide exclusions to vary predator to prey interactions in a 2-yr field study. Predator to prey ratios associated with B. tabaci densities near the existing action threshold were estimated for six predator species found to be negatively associated with either adult and/or large nymphs of B. tabaci [Misumenops celer (Hentz) (Araneae: Thomisidae), Drapetis nr divergens (Diptera: Empididae), Geocoris pallens Stäl (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), Orius tristicolor (White) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), Chrysoperla carnea s.l. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), and Collops spp. (Coleoptera: Melyridae)] with the first three most consistently associated with declining B. tabaci densities. Ratios ranged from 1 M. celer per 100 sweeps to 1 B. tabaci adult per leaf to 44 D. nr. divergens per 100 sweeps to 1 large nymph per leaf disk. These ratios represent biological control informed thresholds that might serve as simple-to-use decision tool for reducing risk in the current B. tabaci integrated pest management strategy. The identification of key predators within the large, flexible food web of the cotton agro-ecosystem and estimation of predator to B. tabaci ratios clarifies the role of key predators in B. tabaci suppression, yielding potential decision-making advantages that could contribute to further improving economic and environmental sustainability of insect management in the cotton system.

Life tables provide a means of measuring the schedules of birth and death from populations over time. They also can be used to quantify the sources and rates of mortality in populations, which has a variety of applications in ecology, including agricultural ecosystems. Horizontal, or cohort-based, life tables provide for the most direct and accurate method of quantifying vital population rates because they follow a group of individuals in a population from birth to death. Here, protocols are presented for conducting and analyzing cohort-based life tables in the field that takes advantage of the sessile nature of the immature life stages of a global insect pest, Bemisia tabaci. Individual insects are located on the underside of cotton leaves and are marked by drawing a small circle around the insect with a non-toxic pen. This insect can then be observed repeatedly over time with the aid of hand lenses to measure development from one stage to the next and to identify stage-specific causes of death associated with natural and introduced mortality forces. Analyses explain how to correctly measure multiple mortality forces that act contemporaneously within each stage and how to use such data to provide meaningful population dynamic metrics. The method does not directly account for adult survival and reproduction, which limits inference to dynamics of immature stages. An example is presented that focused on measuring the impact of bottom-up (plant quality) and top-down (natural enemies) effects on the mortality dynamics of B. tabaci in the cotton system.

There is much debate about the notion of emotional complexity (EC). The debate concerns both the definition and the meaning of ostensible cultural differences in the construct. Some scholars have defined EC as the experience of positive and negative emotions together rather than as opposites, a phenomenon that seems more common in East Asia than North America. Others have defined EC as the experience of emotions in a differentiated manner, a definition that has yet to be explored cross-culturally. The present research explores the role of dialectical beliefs and interdependence in explaining cultural differences in EC according to both definitions. In Study 1, we examined the prevalence of mixed (positive-negative) emotions in English-language online texts from 10 countries varying in interdependence and dialecticism. In Studies 2-3, we examined reports of emotional experiences in 6 countries, comparing intraindividual associations between pleasant and unpleasant states, prevalence of mixed emotions, and emotional differentiation across and within-situations. Overall, interdependence accounted for more cross-cultural and individual variance in EC measures than did dialecticism. Moreover, emotional differentiation was associated with the experience of positive and negative emotions together rather than as opposites, but only when tested on the same level of analysis (i.e., within vs. across-situations). (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).)

"Passion for work" has become a widespread phrase in popular discourse. Two contradictory lay perspectives have emerged on how passion for work is attained, which we distill into the fit and develop implicit theories. Fit theorists believe that passion for work is achieved through finding the right fit with a line of work; develop theorists believe that passion is cultivated over time. Four studies examined the expectations, priorities, and outcomes that characterize these implicit theories. Our results show that these beliefs elicit different motivational patterns, but both can facilitate vocational well-being and success. This research extends implicit theory scholarship to the work domain and provides a framework that can fruitfully inform career advising, life coaching, mentorship, and employment policies., (© 2015 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.)

Empathy, feeling what others feel, is regarded as a special phenomenon that is separate from other emotional experiences. Emotion theories say little about feeling emotions for others and empathy theories say little about how feeling emotions for others relates to normal firsthand emotional experience. Current empathy theories focus on how we feel emotions for others who feel the same thing, but not how we feel emotions for others that they do not feel, such as feeling angry for someone who is sad or feeling embarrassed for someone who is self-assured. We propose an appraisal theory of vicarious emotional experiences, including empathy, based on appraisal theories of emotion. According to this theory, emotions for others are based on how we evaluate their situations, just as firsthand emotions are based on how we evaluate our own situations. We discuss how this framework can predict empathic emotion matching and also the experience of emotions for others that do not match what they feel. The theory treats empathy as a normal part of emotional experience., ((c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).)

Biological control is an underlying pillar of integrated pest management, yet little focus has been placed on assigning economic value to this key ecosystem service. Setting biological control on a firm economic foundation would help to broaden its utility and adoption for sustainable crop protection. Here we discuss approaches and methods available for valuation of biological control of arthropod pests by arthropod natural enemies and summarize economic evaluations in classical, augmentative, and conservation biological control. Emphasis is placed on valuation of conservation biological control, which has received little attention. We identify some of the challenges of and opportunities for applying economics to biological control to advance integrated pest management. Interaction among diverse scientists and stakeholders will be required to measure the direct and indirect costs and benefits of biological control that will allow farmers and others to internalize the benefits that incentivize and accelerate adoption for private and public good.

Variation in plant quality and natural enemy abundance plays an important role in insect population dynamics. In manipulative field studies, we evaluated the impact of varying irrigation levels and insecticide type on densities of Lygus hesperus Knight and the arthropod predator community in cotton. Three watering levels were established via irrigations timed according to three levels of percent soil water depletion (SWD): 20, 40, or 60, where 40% SWD is considered standard grower practice, 60% represents a deficit condition likely to impose plant productivity losses, and 20% represents surplus conditions with likely consequences on excessive vegetative plant production. The two key L. hesperus insecticides used were the broad-spectrum insecticide acephate and the selective insecticide flonicamid, along with an untreated check. We hypothesized that densities of L. hesperus and its associated predators would be elevated at higher irrigation levels and that insecticides would differentially impact L. hesperus and predator dynamics depending on their selectivity. L. hesperus were more abundant at the higher irrigation level (20% SWD) but the predator densities were unaffected by irrigation levels. Both L. hesperus and its predators were affected by the selectivity of the insecticide with highest L. hesperus densities and lowest predator abundance where the broad spectrum insecticide (acephate) was used. There were no direct interactions between irrigation level and insecticides, indicating that insecticide effects on L. hesperus and its predators were not influenced by the irrigation levels used here. The implications of these findings on the overall ecology of insect-plant dynamics and yield in cotton are discussed.

The abundance and distribution of insect herbivores is determined by, among other things, plant quality and natural enemies. These two factors vary temporally and spatially, subsequently affecting seasonal population dynamics. The relative influence of plant quality and natural enemies on the seasonal dynamics of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) was investigated in a 3-yr field study in cotton. Plant quality was manipulated through varying irrigation regimes: irrigations done at 20, 40, and 60% soil water depletions; and natural enemy densities were manipulated using broad spectrum insecticide applications that reduced their densities compared with unsprayed controls. In each year, densities of B. tabaci eggs, large nymphs and adults were consistently higher when natural enemy densities were reduced compared with when they were left unaltered, regardless of irrigation regime. In contrast, effects of plant quality on densities of all whitefly stages were weak and inconsistent. In addition, natural enemy densities and predator:prey ratios also were not generally affected by plant quality. Interactions between natural enemies and plant quality on whitefly dynamics were rare. In general, whitefly densities were elevated two-thirds of the time and increased two- to sixfold when natural enemy densities were reduced compared with plant quality effects which influenced whitefly densities about one-third of the time and were expressed inconsistently over the years. This indicates that natural enemies exert a comparatively greater influence on seasonal dynamics of B. tabaci in cotton than plant quality, as manipulated by differential irrigation.

Evolution of resistance by pests can reduce the benefits of transgenic crops that produce toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for insect control. One of the world's most important cotton pests, pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), has been targeted for control by transgenic cotton producing Bt toxin Cry1Ac in several countries for more than a decade. In China, the frequency of resistance to Cry1Ac has increased, but control failures have not been reported. In western India, pink bollworm resistance to Cry1Ac has caused widespread control failures of Bt cotton. By contrast, in the state of Arizona in the southwestern United States, monitoring data from bioassays and DNA screening demonstrate sustained susceptibility to Cry1Ac for 16 y. From 1996-2005, the main factors that delayed resistance in Arizona appear to be abundant refuges of non-Bt cotton, recessive inheritance of resistance, fitness costs associated with resistance and incomplete resistance. From 2006-2011, refuge abundance was greatly reduced in Arizona, while mass releases of sterile pink bollworm moths were made to delay resistance as part of a multi-tactic eradication program. Sustained susceptibility of pink bollworm to Bt cotton in Arizona has provided a cornerstone for the pink bollworm eradication program and for integrated pest management in cotton. Reduced insecticide use against pink bollworm and other cotton pests has yielded economic benefits for growers, as well as broad environmental and health benefits. We encourage increased efforts to combine Bt crops with other tactics in integrated pest management programs.

What people feel shapes their perceptions of others. In the studies reported here, we examined the assimilative influence of visceral states on social judgment. Replicating prior research, we found that participants who were outside during winter overestimated the extent to which other people were bothered by cold (Study 1), and participants who ate salty snacks without water thought other people were overly bothered by thirst (Study 2). However, in both studies, this effect evaporated when participants believed that the other people under consideration held political views opposing their own. Participants who judged these dissimilar others were unaffected by their own strong visceral-drive states, a finding that highlights the power of dissimilarity in social judgment. Dissimilarity may thus represent a boundary condition for embodied cognition and inhibit an empathic understanding of shared out-group pain. Our findings reveal the need for a better understanding of how people's internal experiences influence their perceptions of the feelings and experiences of those who may hold values different from their own.

This research provides experimental evidence for cultural influence on one of the most basic elements of emotional processing: attention to positive versus negative stimuli. To this end, we focused on Russian culture, which is characterized by brooding and melancholy. In Study 1, Russians spent significantly more time looking at negative than positive pictures, whereas Americans did not show this tendency. In Study 2, Russian Latvians were randomly primed with symbols of each culture, after which we measured the speed of recognition for positive versus negative trait words. Biculturals were significantly faster in recognizing negative words (as compared with baseline) when primed with Russian versus Latvian cultural symbols. Greater identification with Russian culture facilitated this effect. We provide a theoretical discussion of mental processes underlying cultural differences in emotion research.

The refuge strategy is used worldwide to delay the evolution of pest resistance to insecticides that are either sprayed or produced by transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops. This strategy is based on the idea that refuges of host plants where pests are not exposed to an insecticide promote survival of susceptible pests. Despite widespread adoption of this approach, large-scale tests of the refuge strategy have been problematic. Here we tested the refuge strategy with 8 y of data on refuges and resistance to the insecticide pyriproxyfen in 84 populations of the sweetpotato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) from cotton fields in central Arizona. We found that spatial variation in resistance to pyriproxyfen within each year was not affected by refuges of melons or alfalfa near cotton fields. However, resistance was negatively associated with the area of cotton refuges and positively associated with the area of cotton treated with pyriproxyfen. A statistical model based on the first 4 y of data, incorporating the spatial distribution of cotton treated and not treated with pyriproxyfen, adequately predicted the spatial variation in resistance observed in the last 4 y of the study, confirming that cotton refuges delayed resistance and treated cotton fields accelerated resistance. By providing a systematic assessment of the effectiveness of refuges and the scale of their effects, the spatially explicit approach applied here could be useful for testing and improving the refuge strategy in other crop-pest systems.

Background: Many polyphagous pests sequentially use crops and uncultivated habitats in landscapes dominated by annual crops. As these habitats may contribute in increasing or decreasing pest density in fields of a specific crop, understanding the scale and temporal variability of source and sink effects is critical for managing landscapes to enhance pest control., Methodology/principal Findings: We evaluated how local and landscape characteristics affect population density of the western tarnished plant bug, Lygus hesperus (Knight), in cotton fields of the San Joaquin Valley in California. During two periods covering the main window of cotton vulnerability to Lygus attack over three years, we examined the associations between abundance of six common Lygus crops, uncultivated habitats and Lygus population density in these cotton fields. We also investigated impacts of insecticide applications in cotton fields and cotton flowering date. Consistent associations observed across periods and years involved abundances of cotton and uncultivated habitats that were negatively associated with Lygus density, and abundance of seed alfalfa and cotton flowering date that were positively associated with Lygus density. Safflower and forage alfalfa had variable effects, possibly reflecting among-year variation in crop management practices, and tomato, sugar beet and insecticide applications were rarely associated with Lygus density. Using data from the first two years, a multiple regression model including the four consistent factors successfully predicted Lygus density across cotton fields in the last year of the study., Conclusions/significance: Our results show that the approach developed here is appropriate to characterize and test the source and sink effects of various habitats on pest dynamics and improve the design of landscape-level pest management strategies.

Some individuals have very specific and differentiated emotional experiences, such as anger, shame, excitement, and happiness, whereas others have more general affective experiences of pleasure or discomfort that are not as highly differentiated. Considering that individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) have cognitive deficits for negative information, we predicted that people with MDD would have less differentiated negative emotional experiences than would healthy people. To test this hypothesis, we assessed participants' emotional experiences using a 7-day experience-sampling protocol. Depression was assessed using structured clinical interviews and the Beck Depression Inventory-II. As predicted, individuals with MDD had less differentiated emotional experiences than did healthy participants, but only for negative emotions. These differences were above and beyond the effects of emotional intensity and variability.

Background: Development of pyriproxyfen and neonicotinoid resistance in the B-biotype whitefly and recent introduction of the Q biotype have the potential to threaten current whitefly management programs in Arizona. The possibility of integrating the novel anthranilic diamides chlorantraniliprole and cyantraniliprole into the current program to tackle these threats largely depends on whether these compounds have cross-resistance with pyriproxyfen and neonicotinoids in whiteflies. To address this question, the authors bioassayed a susceptible B-biotype strain, a pyriproxyfen-resistant B-biotype strain, four multiply resistant Q-biotype strains and 16 B-biotype field populations from Arizona with a systemic uptake bioassay developed in the present study., Results: The magnitude of variations in LC(50) and LC(99) among the B-biotype populations or the Q-biotype strains was less than fivefold and tenfold, respectively, for both chlorantraniliprole and cyantraniliprole. The Q-biotype strains were relatively more tolerant than the B-biotype populations. No correlations were observed between the LC(50) (or LC(99)) values of the two diamides against the B- and Q-biotype populations tested and their survival rates at a discriminating dose of pyriproxyfen or imidacloprid., Conclusion: These results indicate the absence of cross-resistance between the two anthranilic diamides and the currently used neonicotinoids and pyriproxyfen. Future variation in susceptibility of field populations to chlorantraniliprole and cyantraniliprole could be documented according to the baseline susceptibility range of the populations tested in this study., (Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Lesquerella, Physaria fendleri (A. Gray) S. Watson, is a mustard native to the western United States and is currently being developed as a commercial source of valuable hydroxy fatty acids that can be used in a number of industrial applications, including biolubricants, biofuel additives, motor oils, resins, waxes, nylons, plastics, corrosion inhibitors, cosmetics, and coatings. The plant is cultivated as a winter-spring annual and in the desert southwest it harbors large populations of arthropods, several of which could be significant pests once production expands. Lygus spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) are common in lesquerella and are known pests of a number of agronomic and horticultural crops where they feed primarily on reproductive tissues. A 4-yr replicated plot study was undertaken to evaluate the probable impact of Lygus spp. on production of this potential new crop. Plant damage and subsequent seed yield and quality were examined relative to variable and representative densities of Lygus spp. (0.3-4.9 insects per sweep net) resulting from variable frequency and timing of insecticide applications. Increasing damage to various fruiting structures (flowers [0.9-13.9%], buds [1.2-7.1%], and seed pods [19.4-42.5%]) was significantly associated with increasing pest abundance, particularly the abundance of nymphs, in all years. This damage, however, did not consistently translate into reductions in seed yield (481-1,336 kg/ha), individual seed weight (0.5-0.7 g per 1,000 seed), or seed oil content (21.8-30.4%), and pest abundance generally explained relatively little of the variation in crop yield and quality. Negative effects on yield were not sensitive to the timing of pest damage (early versus late season) but were more pronounced during years when potential yields were lower due to weed competition and other agronomic factors. Results suggest that if the crop is established and managed in a more optimal fashion, Lygus spp. may not significantly limit yield. Nonetheless, additional work will be needed once more uniform cultivars become available and yield effects can be more precisely measured. Densities of Lygus spp. in unsprayed lesquerella are on par with those in other known agroecosystem level sources of this pest (e.g., forage and seed alfalfa, Medicago sativa L.). Thus, lesquerella production may introduce new challenges to pest management in crops such as cotton.

Appraisal theories of emotion propose that the emotions people experience correspond to their appraisals of their situation. In other words, individual differences in emotional experiences reflect differing interpretations of the situation. We hypothesized that in similar situations, people in individualist and collectivist cultures experience different emotions because of culturally divergent causal attributions for success and failure (i.e., agency appraisals). In a test of this hypothesis, American and Japanese participants recalled a personal experience (Study 1) or imagined themselves to be in a situation (Study 2) in which they succeeded or failed, and then reported their agency appraisals and emotions. Supporting our hypothesis, cultural differences in emotions corresponded to differences in attributions. For example, in success situations, Americans reported stronger self-agency emotions (e.g., proud) than did Japanese, whereas Japanese reported a stronger situation-agency emotion (lucky). Also, cultural differences in attribution and emotion were largely explained by differences in self-enhancing motivation. When Japanese and Americans were induced to make the same attribution (Study 2), cultural differences in emotions became either nonsignificant or were markedly reduced., (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved.)

Genetically engineered crops that produce insecticidal toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are grown widely for pest control. However, insect adaptation can reduce the toxins' efficacy. The predominant strategy for delaying pest resistance to Bt crops requires refuges of non-Bt host plants to provide susceptible insects to mate with resistant insects. Variable farmer compliance is one of the limitations of this approach. Here we report the benefits of an alternative strategy where sterile insects are released to mate with resistant insects and refuges are scarce or absent. Computer simulations show that this approach works in principle against pests with recessive or dominant inheritance of resistance. During a large-scale, four-year field deployment of this strategy in Arizona, resistance of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) to Bt cotton did not increase. A multitactic eradication program that included the release of sterile moths reduced pink bollworm abundance by >99%, while eliminating insecticide sprays against this key invasive pest.

Previous cross-cultural comparisons of correlations between positive and negative emotions found that East Asians are more likely than Americans to feel dialectical emotions. However, not much is known about the co-occurrence of positive and negative emotions in a given situation. When asked to describe situations in which they felt mixed emotions, Japanese and American respondents listed mostly similar situations. By presenting these situations to another group of respondents, we found that Japanese reported more mixed emotions than Americans in the predominantly pleasant situations, whereas there were no cultural differences in mixed emotions in the predominantly unpleasant situations or the mixed situations. The appraisal of self-agency mediated cultural differences in mixed emotions in the predominantly pleasant situations. Study 2 replicated the findings by asking participants to recall how they felt in their past pleasant, unpleasant, and mixed situations. The findings suggest that both Americans and Japanese feel mixed emotions, but the kinds of situation in which they typically do so depends on culture.

Previous research on appraisal theories of emotion has shown that emotions and appraisals are related but has not specified the nature of the relationships. This research examined the functional forms of appraisal-emotion relationships and demonstrated that for all seven appraisals studied, appraisals relate to emotions in an S-shaped (ogival) fashion: Changes in appraisals at extreme levels are associated with only small changes in emotions, but changes at moderate levels are associated with substantial changes in emotions. With a few exceptions, ogival relationships were found for the relationships between seven appraisals (Goal Achievement Expectancy, Agency, Control, Certainty, Fairness, Pleasantness, and Motive Congruence) and numerous relevant emotions across different sample-types, cultures, and methods.

Fifty years ago, Stern, Smith, van den Bosch and Hagen outlined a simple but sophisticated idea of pest control predicated on the complementary action of chemical and biological control. This integrated control concept has since been a driving force and conceptual foundation for all integrated pest management (IPM) programs. The four basic elements include thresholds for determining the need for control, sampling to determine critical densities, understanding and conserving the biological control capacity in the system and the use of selective insecticides or selective application methods, when needed, to augment biological control. Here we detail the development, evolution, validation and implementation of an integrated control (IC) program for whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.), in the Arizona cotton system that provides a rare example of the vision of Stern and his colleagues. Economic thresholds derived from research-based economic injury levels were developed and integrated with rapid and accurate sampling plans into validated decision tools widely adopted by consultants and growers. Extensive research that measured the interplay among pest population dynamics, biological control by indigenous natural enemies and selective insecticides using community ordination methods, predator:prey ratios, predator exclusion and demography validated the critical complementary roles played by chemical and biological control. The term 'bioresidual' was coined to describe the extended environmental resistance from biological control and other forces possible when selective insecticides are deployed. The tangible benefits have been a 70% reduction in foliar insecticides, a >$200 million saving in control costs and yield, along with enhanced utilization of ecosystem services over the last 14 years., ((c) 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

In two frequently cited articles, Sommers and Ellsworth (2000, 2001) concluded that the influence of a defendant's race on White mock jurors is more pronounced in interracial trials in which race remains a silent background issue than in trials involving racially charged incidents. Referring to this variable more generally as "race salience," we predicted that any aspect of a trial that leads White mock jurors to be concerned about racial bias should render the race of a defendant less influential. Though subsequent researchers have further explored this idea of "race salience," they have manipulated it in the same way as in these original studies. As such, the scope of the extant literature on "race salience" and juror bias is narrower than many realize. The present article seeks to clarify this and other misconceptions regarding "race salience" and jury decision-making, identifying in the process avenues for future research on the biasing influence of defendant race., ((c) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Emotions research is now routinely grounded in evolution, but explicit evolutionary analyses of emotions remain rare. This article considers the implications of natural selection for several classic questions about emotions and emotional disorders. Emotions are special modes of operation shaped by natural selection. They adjust multiple response parameters in ways that have increased fitness in adaptively challenging situations that recurred over the course of evolution. They are valenced because selection shapes special processes for situations that have influenced fitness in the past. In situations that decrease fitness, negative emotions are useful and positive emotions are harmful. Selection has partially differentiated subtypes of emotions from generic precursor states to deal with specialized situations. This has resulted in untidy emotions that blur into each other on dozens of dimensions, rendering the quest for simple categorically distinct emotions futile. Selection has shaped flexible mechanisms that control the expression of emotions on the basis of an individual's appraisal of the meaning of events for his or her ability to reach personal goals. The prevalence of emotional disorders can be attributed to several evolutionary factors., (2009 APA, all rights reserved)

Pyriproxyfen has been an important insecticide used as part of an integrated pest management (IPM) program for the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (B biotype), in Arizona cotton. We used a simulation model to examine the effects of pyriproxyfen concentration, insecticide action thresholds, crop diversity, planting date, and pyriproxyfen decay on evolution of resistance to pyriproxyfen in B. tabaci. In the model, pyriproxyfen use was restricted to cotton with a limit of one application per season. Other model parameters were based on data from laboratory and field experiments. Whitefly population densities and the number of insecticide applications per year increased as resistance evolved. Resistance evolved slowest with a low pyriproxyfen concentration. Lower action thresholds for pyriproxyfen and higher action thresholds for insecticides other than pyriproxyfen also slowed the evolution of resistance. However, lower action thresholds for pyriproxyfen resulted in more insecticide sprays per year with a high pyriproxyfen concentration. Resistance to pyriproxyfen evolved fastest in cotton-intensive regions and slowest in multicrop regions. In regions with noncotton crops, increasing immigration to cotton slowed resistance. Resistance evolved faster with earlier planting dates, although fewer insecticide sprays were needed compared with fields planted later in the year. Faster rates of pyriproxyfen decay slowed resistance. In some cases, strategies that delayed resistance were effective from an IPM perspective. However, some strategies that delayed resistance resulted in higher population densities. Results suggest that modification of operational and environmental factors, which can be controlled by growers, could prolong the efficacy of pyriproxyfen.

Two studies tested the hypothesis that in judging people's emotions from their facial expressions, Japanese, more than Westerners, incorporate information from the social context. In Study 1, participants viewed cartoons depicting a happy, sad, angry, or neutral person surrounded by other people expressing the same emotion as the central person or a different one. The surrounding people's emotions influenced Japanese but not Westerners' perceptions of the central person. These differences reflect differences in attention, as indicated by eye-tracking data (Study 2): Japanese looked at the surrounding people more than did Westerners. Previous findings on East-West differences in contextual sensitivity generalize to social contexts, suggesting that Westerners see emotions as individual feelings, whereas Japanese see them as inseparable from the feelings of the group.

For more than half a century, emotion researchers have attempted to establish the dimensional space that most economically accounts for similarities and differences in emotional experience. Today, many researchers focus exclusively on two-dimensional models involving valence and arousal. Adopting a theoretically based approach, we show for three languages that four dimensions are needed to satisfactorily represent similarities and differences in the meaning of emotion words. In order of importance, these dimensions are evaluation-pleasantness, potency-control, activation-arousal, and unpredictability. They were identified on the basis of the applicability of 144 features representing the six components of emotions: (a) appraisals of events, (b) psychophysiological changes, (c) motor expressions, (d) action tendencies, (e) subjective experiences, and (f) emotion regulation.

We determined effects of aerial sprays of the insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen on sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (B biotype), in Arizona cotton (Gossypium spp.) fields. We measured survival for males and females from a susceptible strain and a laboratory-selected resistant strain, as well as for hybrid female progeny from crosses between the strains. Insects were exposed directly to pyriproxyfen sprays in the field or indirectly in the laboratory by rearing them on sprayed leaves collected from the field. In all tests, survival was higher for the resistant strain than the susceptible strain, but did not differ between sexes in each strain. Survival to the adult stage did not differ between eggs and nymphs directly exposed to sprays. For susceptible and hybrid individuals, survival was lower on leaves collected the day of spraying than on leaves collected 2 wk after spraying. In contrast, survival of resistant individuals did not differ based on the timing of exposure. Dominance of resistance to pyriproxyfen depended on the type of exposure. Resistance was partially or completely dominant in direct exposure bioassays and on leaves collected 2 wk after spraying (h > 0.6). Resistance was partially recessive on leaves collected the day of spraying (mean h = 0.34). Rapid evolution of resistance to pyriproxyfen could occur if individuals in field populations with traits similar to those of the laboratory-selected strain examined here were treated intensively with this insecticide.

According to appraisal theorists, anger involves a negative event, usually blocking a goal, caused by another person. Critics argue that other-agency is unnecessary, since people can be angry at themselves, and thus that appraisal theory is wrong about anger. In two studies, we compared anger, self-anger, shame, and guilt, and found that self-anger shared some appraisals, action tendencies, and associated emotions with anger, others with shame and guilt. Self-anger was not simply anger with a different agency appraisal. Anger, shame, and guilt almost always involved other people, but almost half of the occurrences of self-anger were solitary. We discuss the incompatibility of appraisal theories with any strict categorical view of emotions, and the inadequacy of emotion words to capture emotional experience., (Copyright 2006 APA, all rights reserved.)

We used computer simulations to examine evolution of resistance to the insect growth regulator (IGR) pyriproxyfen by the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), biotype B [=Bemisia argentifolii (Bellows & Perring)]. Consistent with trends seen in cotton (Gossipyium spp.) fields in Arizona and Israel, results suggest that evolution of resistance to pyriproxyfen may occur rapidly in this haplodiploid insect. Similar to results from models of diploid insects, resistance evolved faster with increases in toxin concentration, dominance of resistance in females, the initial frequency of the resistance allele, and the proportion of the region treated with pyriproxyfen. Resistance was delayed by fitness costs associated with resistance. Movement between treated and untreated cotton fields had little effect, probably because untreated cotton leaves provided internal refuges in treated fields and whiteflies were controlled with other insecticides in external refuges. Resistance evolved faster when susceptibility to pyriproxyfen was greater in susceptible males than susceptible females. In contrast, resistance evolved slower when susceptibility to pyriproxyfen was greater in resistant males than resistant females. Results suggest that growers may be able to prolong the usefulness of pyriproxyfen by applying lower toxin concentrations and promoting susceptible populations in refuges.

The experience of an emotion considered to be culturally unique (i.e., Japanese Amae) was tested in the United States, where there is no word to describe the concept. North American and Japanese participants read scenarios in which a friend made an inappropriate request (Amae), made no request, or made the request to another friend. Both American and Japanese participants felt more positive emotion and perceived the requester as feeling closer to them in the Amae condition than in the other two conditions. However, Americans felt more in control when asked for a favor than when not asked, a pattern that did not emerge among the Japanese. Cultural specificity of hypocognized emotions is discussed., (2006 APA, all rights reserved)

P. Rozin and A. B. Cohen's (2003) method of sending students out to observe each other in familiar circumstances undoubtedly exaggerated the apparent prevalence of confusion, concentration, and worry. The expressions they observed probably ranged from regulatory feedback and communicative signals to expressions of the "intellectual emotions" described by C. Darwin (1872/1965). Appraisal theories can easily accommodate these affective states; there is no need to postulate new "basic emotions" unless one adheres to a rigid categorical view of emotion. Finally, Rozin and Cohen have made a valuable contribution by reminding us of the importance of emotions related to interest.

Studies were conducted in 1994 and 1995 to examine the effects of a range of action thresholds for managing Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) Biotype B (= B. argentifolii Bellows & Perring) with insecticides in cotton on populations of arthropod predators in Imperial Valley, CA, and Maricopa, AZ. Application of insecticides significantly reduced population densities of spiders, Geocoris punctipes (Say), G. pallens (Stål), Orius tristicolor (White), Nabis alternatus Parshley, Zelus renardii Kolenati, Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Méneville, Spanogonicus albofasciatus (Reuter), Drapetis sp., and Chrysoperla carnea Stephens in one or both years and sites compared with untreated controls. Use of higher B. tabaci thresholds conserved some species and groups relative to lower thresholds. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that reductions in predator populations were generally influenced more strongly by the timing of the first insecticide application than by the total number of sprays necessary to maintain suppression of the pest below any given action threshold. A predation index, which weights the importance of each predator species based on their known frequency of predation on B. tabaci and another key pest, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), was developed and analyzed. Patterns were similar to results based on changes in abundance alone, but the index generally revealed less severe effects of insecticides on overall predator function. The current action threshold for conventional insecticidal control of B. tabaci in Arizona and southern California is five adults per leaf. Results here suggest that predator conservation may be enhanced by raising the initial threshold to delay the first application or initially using more selective materials such as insect growth regulators.

The authors argue that individuals regulate perceptions of their relationships in a self-protective way, finding virtue in their partners only when they feel confident that their partners also see virtues in them. In 4 experiments, the authors posed an acute threat to low and high self-esteem individuals' feelings of self-worth (e.g., guilt about a transgression, fears of being inconsiderate or intellectually inept). They then collected measures of confidence in the partner's positive regard and acceptance (i.e., reflected appraisals) and perceptions of the partner. The results revealed that low self-esteem individuals reacted to self-doubt with heightened doubts about their partners' regard, which then tarnished impressions of their partners. In contrast, high self-esteem individuals reacted to self-doubts by becoming more convinced of their partners' continued acceptance, using their relationships as a resource for self-affirmation.

During his lifetime William James's complex ideas about emotion were oversimplified to the point of caricature, and for the next half century scientific research on emotion was driven by the oversimplified version--by the idea that emotions are merely the sensation of bodily changes. In fact, the interpretation of the stimulus was an essential feature of James's ideas, but one that seemed so obvious that it did not require explanation. Three damaging scientific consequences of the mischaracterization of James's views were (a) the nearly exclusive focus on bodily process, (b) the reification of emotions as entities rather than processes, and (c) the linear thinking produced by the concern with the sequence of affect, interpretation, and bodily response.

In keeping with cognitive appraisal models of emotion, it was hypothesized that sadness and anger would exert different influences on causal judgments. Two experiments provided initial support for this hypothesis. Sad Ss perceived situationally caused events as more likely (Experiment 1) and situational forces more responsible for an ambiguous event (Experiment 2) than angry Ss, who, in contrast, perceived events caused by humans as more likely and other people as more responsible. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 showed that the experience of these emotions, rather than their cognitive constituents, mediates these effects. The nonemotional exposure to situational or human agency information did not influence causal judgments (Experiment 3), whereas the induction of sadness and anger without explicit agency information did (Experiments 4 and 5). Discussion is focused on the influence of emotion on social judgment.

There has long been interest in describing emotional experience in terms of underlying dimensions, but traditionally only two dimensions, pleasantness and arousal, have been reliably found. The reasons for these findings are reviewed, and integrating this review with two recent theories of emotions (Roseman, 1984; Scherer, 1982), we propose eight cognitive appraisal dimensions to differentiate emotional experience. In an investigation of this model, subjects recalled past experiences associated with each of 15 emotions, and rated them along the proposed dimensions. Six orthogonal dimensions, pleasantness, anticipated effort, certainty, attentional activity, self-other responsibility/control, and situational control, were recovered, and the emotions varied systematically along each of these dimensions, indicating a strong relation between the appraisal of one's circumstances and one's emotional state. The patterns of appraisal for the different emotions, and the role of each of the dimensions in differentiating emotional experience are discussed.