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Very compact (⁠|$R_\mathrm{e}\lesssim 1$| kpc) massive quiescent galaxies (red nuggets) are more abundant in the high-redshift Universe (⁠|$z\sim 2$| –3) than today. Their size evolution can be explained by collisionless dynamical processes in galaxy mergers which, however, fail to reproduce the diffuse low-density central cores in the local massive early-type galaxies (ETGs). We use sequences of major and minor merger N -body simulations starting with compact spherical and disc-like progenitor models to investigate the impact of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) on the evolution of the galaxies. With the ketju code we accurately follow the collisional interaction of the SMBHs with the nearby stellar population and the collisionless evolution of the galaxies and their dark matter haloes. We show that only models including SMBHs can simultaneously explain the formation of low-density cores up to sizes of |$R_\mathrm{b} \sim 1.3$| kpc with mass deficits in the observed range and the rapid half-mass size evolution. In addition, the orbital structure in the core region (tangentially biased orbits) is consistent with observation-based results for local cored ETGs. The displacement of stars by the SMBHs boost the half-mass size evolution by up to a factor of 2 and even fast rotating progenitors (compact quiescent discs) lose their rotational support after 6–8 mergers. We conclude that the presence of SMBHs is required for merger-driven evolution models of high-redshift red nuggets into local ETGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a recent series of papers, supermassive black holes were used to discern pathways in galaxy evolution. By considering the black holes' coupling with their host galaxy's bulge/spheroid, the progression of mass within each component has shed light on the chronological sequence of galaxy speciation. Offsets between the galaxy-morphology-dependent |$M_{\rm bh}$| – |$M_{\rm \star ,sph}$| scaling relations trace a pattern of 'punctuated equilibrium' arising from merger-driven transitions between galaxy types, such as from spirals to dust-rich lenticulars and further to 'ellicular' and elliptical galaxies. This study delves deeper into the distinction between the ellicular galaxies – characterised by their intermediate-scale discs – and elliptical galaxies. Along the way, it is shown how some antitruncated large-scale discs in lenticular galaxies can arise from the coexistence of a steep intermediate-scale disc and a relatively shallow large-scale disc. This observation undermines application of the popular exponential-disc plus Sérsic-bulge model for lenticular galaxies and suggests some past bulge mass measurements have been overestimated. Furthermore, it is discussed how merger-driven disc-heating and blending likely leads to the spheroidalisation of discs and the conglomeration of multiple discs leads to the (high- n) Sérsicification of light profiles. The ellicular and elliptical galaxy distribution in the |$M_{\rm bh}$| – |$M_{\rm \star ,sph}$| diagram is explored relative to major-merger-built lenticular galaxies and brightest cluster galaxies. The super-quadratic |$M_{\rm bh}$| – |$M_{\rm \star }$| relations, presented herein, for merger-built systems should aid studies of massive black hole collisions and the gravitational wave background. Finally, connections to dwarf compact elliptical and ultracompact dwarf galaxies, with their 100–1000 times higher |$M_{\rm bh}/M_{\rm \star ,sph}$| ratios, are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate whether the oblate, spheroidal morphology of common dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSph) may result from the slow relaxation of stellar orbits within a halo of wave dark matter (⁠|$\psi$| DM) when starting from an initial disc of stars. Stellar orbits randomly walk over a Hubble time, perturbed by the pervasive 'granular' interference pattern of |$\psi$| DM, that fully modulates the dark matter density on the de Broglie scale. Our simulations quantify the level of stellar disc thickening over the Hubble time, showing that distribution of stars is predicted to become an oblate spheroid of increasing radius, that plausibly accounts for the morphology of dSph galaxies. We predict a low level of residual rotation remains after a Hubble time at the 1–3 km/s level, depending on orientation, that compares with recent claims of rotation for some well-studied local dSph galaxies. This steady internal dynamical evolution may be witnessed directly with JWST for well-resolved dwarf galaxies, appearing more oblate with look back time and tending to small discs of young stars at high redshift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding faint dwarf galaxies is fundamental to the development of a robust theory of galaxy formation on small scales. Since the discovery of a population of ultra diffuse galaxies (UDGs) rich in globular clusters (GCs) in Coma, an increasing number of studies on low surface brightness dwarf galaxies (LSBds) have been published in recent years. The most massive LSBds have been observed predominantly in groups and clusters, with properties displaying dependence on the environment. In this work, we use deep DECam imaging to systematically identify LSBds and their GC populations around the low-density environment of NGC 3115. We carefully analyse the structure and morphology of 24 candidates, 18 of which are reported for the first time. Most candidates exhibit red colours suggesting a connection between their colour and distance to NGC 3115. We followed up with Gemini GMOS imaging 9 LSBds to properly identify their GC populations. We derive lower limits for the number of GCs associated with each galaxy. Our analysis reveals that they occur around of the same loci of Fornax LSB dwarf GC systems. The relationship between the number of GCs and total mass provides a tool in which, by counting the GCs in these galaxies, we estimate an upper limit for the total mass of these LSB dwarfs, obtaining the mean value of |$\sim 3.3\times 10^{10}$|  M |$_{\odot }$|⁠. Our results align with expectations for dwarf-sized galaxies, particularly regarding the distribution and specific frequency of their GC systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stellar shells surrounding an elliptical galaxy, as remnants of a dwarf galaxy disrupted during merging, reveal the distribution of energy and angular momentum of the progenitor dwarf galaxy. We develop a semi-analytical model to describe the changes in energy Δ E i and angular momentum Δ Lz i for particles during the first infall. We show that these changes, induced by the self-gravity of the progenitor, are important in broadening the initial energy distribution of the Plummer or Hernquist progenitor model. Consequently, these changes are crucial in shaping the shells. In the freefall stage following the disintegration of the progenitor potential, particles are no longer bound by self-gravity but move within the gravitational potential of the target galaxy. We investigate the relationship between the radial period and the energy of particles undergoing radial motion. We show that an accurate model of the energy range of the dwarf galaxy at disruption is essential to predict the number of observable shells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relic galaxies, the oldest ultra-compact massive galaxies (UCMGs), contain almost exclusively 'pristine' stars formed during an intense star formation (SF) burst at high redshift. As such, they allow us to study in detail the early mechanism of galaxy assembly in the Universe. Using the largest catalogue of spectroscopically confirmed UCMGs for which a degree of relicness (DoR) had been estimated, the INSPIRE catalogue, we investigate whether or not relics prefer dense environments. The objective of this study is to determine if the DoR, which measures how extreme the SF history was, and the surrounding environment are correlated. In order to achieve this goal, we employ the AMICO galaxy cluster catalogue to compute the probability for a galaxy to be a member of a cluster, and measure the local density around each UCMG using machine learning-based photometric redshifts. We find that UCMGs can reside both in clusters and in the field, but objects with very low DoR (⁠|$\lt 0.3$|⁠ , i.e. a relatively extended SF history) prefer underdense environments. We additionally report a correlation between the DoR and the distance from the cluster centre: more extreme relics, when located in clusters, tend to occupy the more central regions of them. We finally outline potential evolution scenarios for UCMGs at different DoR to reconcile their presence in both clusters and field environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report ultra-deep, medium-resolution spectroscopic observations for four quiescent galaxies with log |$_{10}(M_*/\mathrm{M_\odot })\gt 11$| at |$3 \lt z \lt 5$|⁠. These data were obtained with JWST NIRSpec as part of the Early eXtragalactic Continuum and Emission Line Science (EXCELS) survey, which we introduce in this work. The first two galaxies are newly selected from PRIMER UDS imaging, both at |$z=4.62$| and separated by 860 pkpc on the sky, within a larger structure for which we confirm several other members. Both formed at |$z\simeq 8-10$|⁠. These systems could plausibly merge by the present day to produce a local massive elliptical galaxy. The other two ultra-massive quiescent galaxies are previously known at |$z=3.99$| and 3.19, with the latter (ZF-UDS-7329) having been the subject of debate as potentially too old and too massive to be accommodated by the |$\Lambda$| -CDM halo-mass function. Both exhibit high stellar metallicities, and for ZF-UDS-7329 we are able to measure the |$\alpha -$| enhancement, obtaining [Mg/Fe] = |$0.42^{+0.19}_{-0.17}$|⁠. We finally evaluate whether these four galaxies are consistent with the |$\Lambda$| -CDM halo-mass function using an extreme value statistics approach. We find that the |$z=4.62$| objects and the |$z=3.19$| object are unlikely within our area under the assumption of standard stellar fractions (⁠|$f_*\simeq 0.1-0.2$|⁠). However, these objects roughly align with the most massive galaxies expected under the assumption of 100 per cent conversion of baryons to stars (⁠|$f_*$| =1). Our results suggest extreme galaxy formation physics during the first billion years, but no conflict with |$\Lambda$| -CDM cosmology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the ionized gas in the inner region (⁠|$\sim$| |$680\times 470$| pc2) of the galaxy NGC 6868 using Gemini/GMOS (Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph) integral field unit observations. Channel maps reveal complex kinematics and morphology, indicating multiple processes at work in NGC 6868. Through emission-line fitting, we identified two ubiquitous components in our data: a narrow (⁠|$\sigma \sim 110$| km s |$^{-1}$|⁠) tracing an ionized gas disc and a broad component (⁠|$\sigma \sim 300$| km s |$^{-1}$|⁠) mainly associated with inflowing/outflowing gas. The derived V -band reddening shows a spatial distribution consistent with that obtained from stellar population synthesis, although with generally higher values. For the first time, we measured the electron temperature in NGC 6868, finding values ranging from |$\sim$| 14 000 K in the central region to |$\gtrsim 20000$| K with an outward increasing temperature gradient. The electron density map exhibits an inverse relationship, with central values reaching |$N_e\sim 4000$| cm–3 for the broad component decreasing to |$N_e\sim 100$| cm–3 towards the edges of the field of view. Using BPT diagrams, we found that all spaxels are consistent with both active galactic nucleus (AGN) and shock ionization. However, when this information is combined with our kinematic and temperature findings, and further supported by the WHAN diagram, we argue that an AGN is the dominant ionization mechanism in the central region of NGC 6868, while the extended outer component is ionized by a combination of hot low-mass evolved stars and shocks. According to our findings, shocks play a significant role in the ionization balance of this galaxy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Enhanced Wide-field Galaxy Classification Network (EWGC) is a novel architecture designed to classify spiral and elliptical galaxies using Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) images. The EWGC achieves an impressive classification accuracy of 90.02%, significantly outperforming the previously developed WGC network and underscoring its superior performance in galaxy morphology classification. Remarkably, the network demonstrates a consistent accuracy of 90.02% when processing both multi-target and single-target images. Such robustness indicates the EWGC's versatility and potential for various applications in galaxy classification tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences between the local value of the Hubble constant measured via the distance ladder versus the value inferred from the cosmic microwave background with the assumption of the standard ΛCDM model have reached over 5 σ significance. To determine if this discrepancy is due to new physics or more mundane systematic errors, it is essential to remove as many sources of systematic uncertainty as possible, by developing high-precision distance ladders that are independent of the traditional Cepheid and Type Ia supernova route. Here, we present JWST observations of three early-type Fornax Cluster galaxies, the first of 14 observations from a Cycle 2 JWST program. Our modest integration times allow us to measure highly precise tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) distances and they will also be used to perform measurements of surface brightness fluctuations (SBFs). From these three galaxies, we determine an average TRGB distance modulus to the Fornax Cluster of μ = 31.424 ± 0.077 mag or D = 19.3 ± 0.7 Mpc. With 11 more scheduled observations in nearby elliptical galaxies, our program will allow us to set the zero-point of the SBF scale to better than 2% for more distant measurements, charting a path toward a high-precision measurement of H 0 that is independent of the traditional Cepheid–supernova Ia distance ladder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use analytical and N -body methods to study the capture of field stars by gravitating substructures moving across a galactic environment. The majority of stars captured by a substructure move on temporarily bound orbits that are lost to galactic tides after a few orbital revolutions. In numerical experiments where a substructure model is immersed into a sea of field particles on a circular orbit, we find a population of particles that remain bound to the substructure potential for indefinitely long times. This population is absent from substructure models, initially placed outside the galaxy on an eccentric orbit. We show that gravitational capture is most efficient in dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs) on account of their low velocity dispersions and high stellar phase-space densities. In these galaxies, 'dark' sub-subhaloes, which do not experience in situ star formation, may capture field stars and become visible as stellar overdensities with unusual properties: (i) they would have a large size for their luminosity, (ii) contain stellar populations indistinguishable from the host galaxy, and (iii) exhibit dark matter (DM)-dominated mass-to-light ratios. We discuss the nature of several 'anomalous' stellar systems reported as star clusters in the Fornax and Eridanus II dSphs that exhibit some of these characteristics. DM sub-subhaloes with a mass function |${\rm d}N/{\rm d}M_\bullet \sim M_\bullet ^{-\alpha }$| are expected to generate stellar systems with a luminosity function, |${\rm d}N/{\rm d}M_\star \sim M_\star ^{-\beta }$|⁠ , where |$\beta =(2\alpha +1)/3=1.6$| for |$\alpha =1.9$|⁠. Detecting and characterizing these objects in dSphs would provide unprecedented constraints on the particle mass and cross-section of a large range of DM particle candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present quantizer , a new collisionless N -body code tailored for cosmological and galaxy-scale simulations. The code uses the particle-mesh method, combined with a novel adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) technique. The design of the AMR method of quantizer maximizes the efficient use of refinement zones by combining a cell-by-cell scheme with parallelization-friendly regular patches. We test the code using three astrophysical systems: a binary system of two particles without AMR to test orbital accuracy; an isolated elliptical galaxy modelled as a Plummer sphere; and a merger of two disc galaxies. Comparisons are made with the well-known particle-mesh AMR code ramses , and with our own direct particle-particle solver. The results show that the accuracy of quantizer is equal to or better than ramses , and the runtime is approximately 2.5 to 10 times faster than that code, depending on the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. The Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy (dSph) represents a challenge for some globular cluster (GC) formation models, because an exceptionally high fraction of its stellar mass is locked in its GC system. In order to shed light on our understanding of GC formation, we aim to constrain the amount of stellar mass that Fornax has lost via tidal interaction with the Milky Way (MW). Methods. Exploiting the flexibility of effective multi-component N-body simulations and relying on state-of-the-art estimates of Fornax's orbital parameters, we study the evolution of the mass distribution of the Fornax dSph in observationally justified orbits in the gravitational potential of the MW over 12 Gyr. Results. We find that, though the dark-matter mass loss can be substantial, the fraction of stellar mass lost by Fornax to the MW is always negligible, even in the most eccentric orbit considered. Conclusions. We conclude that stellar-mass loss due to tidal stripping is not a plausible explanation for the unexpectedly high stellar mass of the GC system of the Fornax dSph and we discuss quantitatively the implications for GC formation scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strong gravitational lensing observations can provide extremely valuable information on the structure of galaxies, but their interpretation is made difficult by selection effects, which, if not accounted for, introduce a bias between the properties of strong lens galaxies and those of the general population. A rigorous treatment of the strong lensing bias requires, in principle, to fully forward model the lens selection process. However, doing so for existing lens surveys is prohibitively difficult. With this work we propose a practical solution to the problem: using an empirical model to capture the most complex aspects of the lens finding process, and constraining it directly from the data together with the properties of the lens population. We applied this method to real data from the SLACS sample of strong lenses. Assuming a power-law density profile, we recovered the mass distribution of the parent population of galaxies from which the SLACS lenses were drawn. We found that early-type galaxies with a stellar mass of log M*/M⊙ = 11.3 and average size have a median projected mass enclosed within a 5 kpc aperture of log M5/M⊙ = 11.332 ± 0.013, and an average logarithmic density slope of γ = 1.99 ± 0.03. These values are respectively 0.02 dex and 0.1 lower than inferred when ignoring selection effects. According to our model, most of the bias is due to the prioritisation of SLACS follow-up observations based on the measured velocity dispersion. As a result, the strong lensing bias in γ reduces to ∼0.01 when controlling for stellar velocity dispersion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The evolution of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) is closely connected to their host galaxies and surroundings. Via feedback processes, AGNs can counteract the cooling of the intracluster medium (ICM) and suppress star formation in their host galaxies. Radio observations at low frequencies provide a glimpse into the history of AGN activity. The Virgo cluster is a substantial reservoir of nearby galaxies and provides an ideal laboratory for the study of AGNs as well as their feedback mechanisms. Aims. The aim of our work is to characterise the AGN population within the Virgo cluster down to low radio luminosities, constrain the AGN duty cycle, and investigate environmental feedback in cluster member galaxies. Methods. We analysed 144 MHz and 1.3 GHz radio observations of early-type galaxies from the ACS Virgo Cluster Survey (ACSVCS) taken with LOFAR and MeerKAT. Results. We detect 12 of these galaxies at 144 MHz, five of which show clearly extended radio emission. The radio luminosity shows a strong dependence on the stellar mass of the host galaxy, in agreement with previous results. As a notable outlier, the massive elliptical galaxy NGC 4365 (M* = 2.2 × 1011 M⊙) is not detected as compact source in the LOFAR observations. Instead, it is surrounded by diffuse, low-surface brightness emission, which hints towards a past phase of stronger nuclear activity. Furthermore, we find a cavity in NGC 4472 (=M 49) inflated by the wide-angle tail only visible in the LOFAR data, which implies that the cavity was created by a past outburst. The corresponding cavity power is of the same order of magnitude as the jet power in the present duty cycle of the AGN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the stellar mass-metallicity relation (MZR) using a sample of 637 quiescent galaxies with 10.4 ≤ log(M*/M⊙) < 11.7 selected from the LEGA-C survey at 0.6 ≤ z ≤ 1. We derived mass-weighted stellar metallicities using full-spectral fitting. We find that while lower-mass galaxies are both metal-rich and metal-poor, there are no metal-poor galaxies at high masses, and that metallicity is bounded at low values by a mass-dependent lower limit. This lower limit increases with mass, empirically defining a MEtallicity-Mass Exclusion (MEME) zone. We find that the spectral index MgFe ≡ √Mgb × Fe4383, a proxy for the stellar metallicity, also shows a mass-dependent lower limit resembling the MEME relation. Crucially, MgFe is independent of stellar population models and fitting methods. By constructing the metallicity enrichment histories, we find that, after the first gigayear, the star formation history of galaxies has a mild impact on the observed metallicity distribution. Finally, from the average formation times, we find that galaxies populate differently the metallicity-mass plane at different cosmic times, and that the MEME limit is recovered by galaxies that formed at z ≥ 3. Our work suggests that the stellar metallicity of quiescent galaxies is bounded by a lower limit which increases with the stellar mass. On the other hand, low-mass galaxies can have metallicities as high as galaxies ∼1 dex more massive. This suggests that, at log(M*/M⊙)≥10.4, rather than lower-mass galaxies being systematically less metallic, the observed MZR might be a consequence of the lack of massive metal-poor galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In non-star-forming, passively evolving galaxies, regions with emission lines dominated by low-ionization species are classified as low-ionization emission regions (LIERs). The ionization mechanism behind such regions has long been a mystery. Active galactic nuclei (AGNs), which were once believed to be the source, have been found not to be the dominant mechanism, especially in regions distant from the galaxy nuclei. The remaining candidates, photoionization by post-asymptotic giant branch (pAGB) stars and interstellar shocks can only be distinguished with in-depth analysis. As the temperature predictions of these two models differ, temperature measurements can provide strong constraints on this puzzle. We selected a sample of 2795 quiescent red-sequence galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV (SDSS-IV) Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA) survey. We divided the sample spectra into three groups based on the [N II]/Hα flux ratio, and utilized stacking techniques to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the observed spectra. We determined the temperature of [O III], [N II], [S II], and [O II] through their temperature-sensitive emission line ratios. Subsequently, we compared the measured temperatures with predictions from different models. The results demonstrate consistency with the interstellar shock model with pre-shock density n = 1 cm−3 and solar metallicity, thus supporting shocks as the dominant ionization source of LIERs. Additionally, we also find that the interstellar dust extinction value measured through the Balmer decrement appears to be larger than that implied by the forbidden line ratios of low-ionization lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present [Fe/H] values for globular clusters associated with the Fornax, Sagittarius, and Canis Major dwarf spheroidal galaxies based on the light curve properties of their ab-type RR Lyrae variables. Fornax is a classical dwarf spheroidal containing five globular clusters and exhibiting a spheroidal shape in the sky. Sagittarius and Canis Major, possess six and four globular clusters, respectively, and have both been tidally disrupted to a significant degree by the gravitational field of the Milky Way galaxy. Based on an analysis of the periods and light curve amplitudes of 76 globular cluster ab-type RR Lyraes in Fornax, 103 in Sagittarius, and 29 in Canis Major, we find mean metallicities of |$\langle$| [Fe/H] |$\rangle$| = –1.67 ± 0.05, –1.76 ± 0.12, and –1.69 ± 0.25 for the globular clusters in Fornax, Sagittarius, and Canis Major, respectively. Given the similarity of these three values, and coupled with the well-established correlation between the mean metal abundance and total luminosity for dwarf spheroidal galaxies, we conclude that the absolute V -band magnitudes of these three galaxies are indistinguishable to within ∼0.8 mag. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Submillimetre galaxies (SMGs) are some of the most extreme star-forming systems in the Universe, whose place in the framework of galaxy evolution is as yet uncertain. It has been hypothesized that SMGs are progenitors of local early-type galaxies, requiring that SMGs generally reside in galaxy cluster progenitors at high redshift. We test this hypothesis and explore SMG environments using a narrow-band VLT/HAWK-I+GRAAL study of H  |$\alpha$| and [O  iii ] emitters around an unbiased sample of three ALMA-identified and spectroscopically confirmed SMGs at |$z \sim 2.3$| and |$\sim 3.3$|⁠ , where these SMGs were selected solely on spectroscopic redshift. Comparing with blank-field observations at similar epochs, we find that one of the three SMGs lies in an overdensity of emission-line sources on the |$\sim 4$| Mpc scale of the HAWK-I field of view, with overdensity parameter |$\delta _{g} = 2.6^{+1.4}_{-1.2}$|⁠. A second SMG is significantly overdense only on |$\lesssim 1.6$| Mpc scales and the final SMG is consistent with residing in a blank field environment. The total masses of the two overdensities are estimated to be |$\log (M_{h}/{\rm M}_{\odot }) =$| 12.1–14.4, leading to present-day masses of |$\log (M_{h,z=0}/{\rm M}_{\odot }) =$| 12.9–15.9. These results imply that SMGs occupy a range of environments, from overdense protoclusters or protogroups to the blank field, suggesting that while some SMGs are strong candidates for the progenitors of massive elliptical galaxies in clusters, this may not be their only possible evolutionary pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a hierarchical Bayesian pipeline, BP3M, that measures positions, parallaxes, and proper motions (PMs) for cross-matched sources between Hubble Space Telescope (HST) images and Gaia—even for sparse fields (N * < 10 per image)—expanding from the recent GaiaHub tool. This technique uses Gaia-measured astrometry as priors to predict the locations of sources in HST images, and is therefore able to put the HST images onto a global reference frame without the use of background galaxies/QSOs. Testing our publicly available code in the Fornax and Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxies, we measure PMs that are a median of 8–13 times more precise than Gaia DR3 alone for 20.5 < G < 21 mag. We are able to explore the effect of observation strategies on BP3M astrometry using synthetic data, finding an optimal strategy to improve parallax and position precision at no cost to the PM uncertainty. Using 1619 HST images in the sparse COSMOS field (median nine Gaia sources per HST image), we measure BP3M PMs for 2640 unique sources in the 16 < G < 21.5 mag range, 25% of which have no Gaia PMs; the median BP3M PM uncertainty for 20.25 < G < 20.75 mag sources is 0.44 mas yr−1 compared to 1.03 mas yr−1 from Gaia, while the median BP3M PM uncertainty for sources without Gaia-measured PMs (20.75 < G < 21.5 mag) is 1.16 mas yr−1. The statistics that underpin the BP3M pipeline are a generalized way of combining position measurements from different images, epochs, and telescopes, which allows information to be shared between surveys and archives to achieve higher astrometric precision than that from each catalog alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Fundamental Plane relates the effective radius and surface brightness of an early-type galaxy to its velocity dispersion. It is important in understanding galaxy formation and evolution processes. The present work aims to investigate this relation as well as Faber-Jackson and Kormendy relations for both elliptical and lenticular galaxies separately in order to compare them. For this purpose, we take a sample of 140 early-type galaxies (70 elliptical galaxies and 70 lenticular ones), extracted from the extensive catalogue of early-type galaxies, and investigate them by using data analysis and visualization software. This work confirms that elliptical and lenticular galaxies are located almost in the same fundamental plane, with an rms scatter of 0.140 for ellipticals and 0.172 for lenticulars. Yet, elliptical galaxies show a tighter relationship than lenticular galaxies. This implies that elliptical galaxies obey the Fundamental Plane relation better than lenticular galaxies. Also, the two morphological types of galaxies obey Faber-Jackson relation, with an rms scatter of 0.101 for ellipticals and 0.873 for lenticulars. They, also, obey Kormendy relation, with an rms scatter of 0.600 for elliptical and 0.685 for lenticulars. These results indicate that the two relations are, also, more obvious in the case of elliptical galaxies.

In Paper-I, we developed a two-phase model to connect dynamically hot galaxies (such as ellipticals and bulges) with the formation of self-gravitating gas clouds (SGCs) associated with the fast assembly of dark matter haloes. Here, we explore the implications of the model for the size–stellar mass relation of dynamically hot galaxies. Star-forming sub-clouds resulting from the fragmentation of the turbulent SGC inherit its spatial structure and dynamical hotness, producing a 'homologous' relation, |$r_{\rm f}\approx \, 100\, r_{\rm bulge}$|⁠ , between the size of a dynamically hot galaxy (⁠|$r_{\rm bulge}$|⁠) and that of its host halo assembled in the fast regime (⁠|$r_{\rm f}$|⁠), independent of redshift and halo mass. This relation is preserved by the 'dry' expansion driven by dynamical heating when a galaxy becomes gas-poor due to inefficient cooling, and is frozen due to the stop of bulge growth during the slow assembly regime of the halo. The size–stellar mass relation is thus a simple combination of the galaxy–halo homology and the non-linear stellar mass–halo mass relation. Using a set of halo assembly histories, we reproduce all properties in the observed size–mass relation of dynamically hot galaxies, including the flattening in the low-mass end and the upturn in the massive end. The prediction matches observational data currently available to |$z \approx 4$|⁠ , and can be tested in the future at higher z. Our results indicate that the sizes of dynamically hot galaxies are produced by the dissipation and collapse of gas in haloes to establish SGCs in which stars form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relation between nuclear star clusters (NSCs) and the growth of the central supermassive black holes (SMBHs), as well as their connection to the properties of the host galaxies, is crucial for understanding the evolution of galaxies. Recent observations have revealed that about 10 per cent of nucleated galaxies host hybrid nuclei, consisting of both NSCs and accreting SMBHs that power active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Motivated by the potential of the recently published multiwavelength data sets from LeMMINGs survey, here we present the most thorough investigation to date of the incidence of hybrid nuclei in a large sample of 100 nearby nucleated galaxies (10 E, 25 S0, 63 S, and 2 Irr), covering a wide range in stellar mass (⁠|$M_{*,\rm gal} \sim 10^{8.7}-10^{12}~\rm M_{\odot }$|⁠). We identify the nuclei and derive their properties by performing detailed 1D and 2D multicomponent decompositions of the optical and near-infrared HST stellar light distributions of the galaxies using Sérsic and core-Sérsic models. Our AGN diagnostics are based on homogeneously derived nuclear 1.5 GHz e -MERLIN radio, Chandra X-ray (0.3–10 keV), and optical emission-line data. We determine the nucleation fraction (⁠|$f_{\rm nuc}$|⁠) as the relative incidence of nuclei across the LeMMINGs HST sample and find |$f_{\rm nuc} =~$| 100/149 (= 67 |$\pm$| 7 per cent), confirming previous work, with a peak value of |$49/56~(= 88 \pm 13$|  per cent) at bulge masses |$M_{*,\rm bulge}\sim 10^{9.4}- 10^{10.8}~ \rm M_{\odot }$|⁠. We identify 30 nucleated LeMMINGs galaxies that are optically active, radio-detected, and X-ray luminous (⁠|$L_\textnormal {X} \gt 10^{39}$| erg s |$^{-1}$|⁠). This indicates that our nucleated sample has a lower limit |$\sim$| 30 per cent occupancy of hybrid nuclei, which is a function of |$M_{*,\rm bulge}$| and |$M_{*,\rm gal}$|⁠. We find that hybrid nuclei have a number density of |$(1.5 \pm 0.4)\times 10^{-5}$|  Mpc |$^{-3}$|⁠ , are more common at |$M_{*,\rm gal}\sim 10^{10.6}- 10^{11.8}~\rm M_{\odot }$| and occur, at least, three times more frequently than previously reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide new constraints on the dark matter halo density profile of Milky Way (MW) dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs) using the phase-space distribution function (DF) method. After assessing the systematics of the approach against mock data from the Gaia Challenge project, we apply the DF analysis to the entire kinematic sample of well-measured MW dwarf satellites for the first time. Contrary to previous findings for some of these objects, we find that the DF analysis yields results consistent with the standard Jeans analysis. In particular, in this study we rediscover (i) a large diversity in the inner halo densities of dSphs (bracketed by Draco and Fornax), and (ii) an anticorrelation between inner halo density and pericenter distance of the bright MW satellites. Regardless of the strength of the anticorrelation, we find that the distribution of these satellites in density versus pericenter space is inconsistent with the results of the high-resolution N -body simulations that include a disc potential. Our analysis motivates further studies on the role of internal feedback and dark matter microphysics in these dSphs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present results from simultaneous modelling of 2D (projected along the line of sight) position, proper motion, and line-of-sight velocity for Gaia - and Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE)-observed stars near the centre of the Sagittarius (Sgr) dwarf spheroidal galaxy. We use a mixture model that allows for independent sub-populations contributed by the Sgr galaxy, its nuclear star cluster Messier 54 (M54), and the Milky Way foreground. We find an offset of |$0.295\pm 0.029$| deg between the inferred centroids of Sgr and M54, corresponding to a (projected) physical separation of |$0.135\pm 0.013$| kpc. The detected offset might plausibly be driven by unmodelled asymmetry in Sgr's stellar configuration; however, standard criteria for model selection favour our symmetric model over an alternative that allows for bilateral asymmetry. We infer an offset between the proper motion centres of Sgr and M54 of |$[\Delta \mu _{\alpha }\cos \delta ,\Delta \mu _{\delta }]=[4.9, -19.7] \pm [6.8, 6.2] \ \mu \mathrm{ as}\,\mathrm{ yr}^{-1}$| (⁠|$[0.61, -2.46] \pm [0.85, 0.77] \ \mathrm{ km}\,\mathrm{ s}^{-1}$|⁠), with magnitude similar to the covariance expected due to spatially correlated systematic error. We infer an offset of |$4.1\pm 1.2 \ \mathrm{ km}\,\mathrm{ s}^{-1}$| in line-of-sight velocity. Using inferred values for the systemic positions and motions of Sgr and M54 as initial conditions, we calculate the recent orbital history of a simplified Sgr/M54 system, which we demonstrate to be sensitive to any line-of-sight distance offset between M54 and Sgr, and to the distribution of dark matter within Sgr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Odd radio circles (ORCs) are mysterious rings of faint, diffuse emission recently discovered in radio surveys, some of which may be associated with galaxies in relatively dense environments. We propose that such ORCs are synchrotron emission from remnants of explosive galactic outflows, calling them OGREs, and discuss their broad-band non-thermal emission and evolution. We posit that a large amount of energy was ejected from the central galaxy in the past, creating an outgoing shock that accelerates cosmic rays. Assuming plausible values for the density, temperature and magnetic field of the ambient medium, consistency with the observed spectral index, size, and power of the ORCs requires the energy to be as high as ∼1060 erg, suggesting that their sources could be active galactic nuclei. We calculate the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of the OGREs and their evolution, including synchrotron, inverse Compton (IC), and bremsstrahlung emission from electrons, and pion-decay emission from protons. We find that the SEDs of the younger OGREs are not greatly different from those of older ones currently observable as ORCs if radiative cooling of electrons is effective. As such younger OGREs are expected to be rarer and smaller, they may not be readily observable. However, if radiative cooling of electrons is ineffective, younger OGREs may be detectable in X-rays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze four epochs of Hubble Space Telescope imaging over 18 yr for the Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxy. We measure precise proper motions for hundreds of stars and combine these with existing line-of-sight (LOS) velocities. This provides the first radially resolved 3D velocity dispersion profiles for any dwarf galaxy. These constrain the intrinsic velocity anisotropy and resolve the mass–anisotropy degeneracy. We solve the Jeans equations in oblate axisymmetric geometry to infer the mass profile. We find the velocity dispersion to be radially anisotropic along the symmetry axis and tangentially anisotropic in the equatorial plane, with a globally averaged value β B ¯ = − 0.20 − 0.53 + 0.28 , (where 1 – β B ≡ 〈 v tan 2 〉 / 〈 v rad 2 〉 in 3D). The logarithmic dark matter (DM) density slope over the observed radial range, Γdark, is − 0.83 − 0.37 + 0.32 , consistent with the inner cusp predicted in ΛCDM cosmology. As expected given Draco's low mass and ancient star formation history, it does not appear to have been dissolved by baryonic processes. We rule out cores larger than 487, 717, and 942 pc at 1 σ, 2 σ, and 3 σ confidence, respectively, thus imposing important constraints on the self-interacting DM cross section. Spherical models yield biased estimates for both the velocity anisotropy and the inferred slope. The circular velocity at our outermost data point (900 pc) is 24.19 − 2.97 + 6.31 km s − 1 . We infer a dynamical distance of 75.37 − 4.00 + 4.73 kpc and show that Draco has a modest LOS rotation, with v / σ = 0.22 ± 0.09 . Our results provide a new stringent test of the so-called "cusp–core" problem that can be readily extended to other dwarfs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal (Sgr dSph) galaxy provides one of the most convincing examples of tidal interaction between satellite galaxies and the Milky Way (MW). The main body of the dwarf was recently demonstrated to have an elongated, prolate, bar-like shape and to possess some internal rotation. Whether these features are temporary results of the strong tidal interaction at the recent pericenter passage or are due to a disky progenitor is a matter of debate. I present an analog of Sgr selected among bar-like galaxies from the TNG50 simulation of the IllustrisTNG project. The simulated dwarf is initially a disky galaxy with mass exceeding 1011 M⊙ and evolves around a MW-like host on a tight orbit with seven pericenter passages and a period of about 1 Gyr. At the second pericenter passage, the disk transforms into a bar and the bar-like shape of the stellar component is preserved until the end of the evolution. The morphological transformation is accompanied by strong mass loss, leaving a dwarf with a final mass of below 109 M⊙. The gas is lost completely and the star formation ceases at the third pericenter passage. At the last pericenters, the dwarf possesses a bar-like shape, a little remnant rotation, and the metallicity gradient, which are consistent with observations. The more concentrated metal-rich stellar population rotates faster and has a lower velocity dispersion than the more extended metal-poor one. The metallicity distribution evolves so that the most metal-poor stars are stripped first, which explains the metallicity gradient detected in the Sgr stream. This study demonstrates that a dSph galaxy with properties akin to the Sgr dwarf can form from a disky progenitor with a mass of above 1011 M⊙ by tidal evolution around the MW in the cosmological context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observations of nearby massive galaxies have revealed that they are older and richer in metals and magnesium than their low-mass counterparts. In particular, the overabundance of magnesium compared to iron, [Mg/Fe], is interpreted to reflect the short star formation history that the current massive galaxies underwent early in the Universe. We present a systematic revision of the [Mg/Fe] – velocity dispersion (σ) relation based on stacked spectra of early-type galaxies with a high signal-to-noise ratio from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Using the penalized pixel-fitting (pPXF) method and the MILES single stellar population models, we fit a wide optical wavelength range to measure the net α-abundance. The combination of pPXF and α-enhanced MILES models incorrectly leads to an apparently decreasing trend of [α/Fe] with velocity dispersion. We interpret this result as a consequence of variations in the individual abundances of the different α-elements. This warrants caution for a naive use of full spectral fitting algorithms paired with stellar population models that do not take individual elemental abundance variations into account, especially when deriving averaged quantities such as the mean [α/Fe] of a stellar population. In addition, and based on line-strength measurements, we quantify the impact of a non-universal initial mass function on the recovered abundance pattern of galaxies. In particular, we find that a simultaneous fit of the slope of the initial mass function and the [Mg/Fe] results in a shallower [Mg/Fe]–σ relation. Therefore, our results suggest that star formation in massive galaxies lasted longer than what has been reported previously, although it still occurred significantly faster than in the solar neighbourhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Within the Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) cosmology, dark matter haloes are expected to deviate from spherical symmetry. The particular shape of a galactic halo reflects the environment and mass assembly history of its host, as well as the nature of dark matter. Constraining halo shapes at large galactocentric distances is challenging because of the low density of luminous tracers. The well-studied massive early-type galaxy NGC 5128, also known as Centaurus A (Cen A), has a large number of radial velocity measurements for globular clusters (GCs) and planetary nebulae (PNe) extending over a vast area of its extended low-surface-brightness stellar halo. Aims. In this work, we aim to determine the deviation from spherical symmetry of the dark matter halo of Cen A at 5 Re using its GCs as kinematic tracers of the gravitational potential. Methods. We investigated the largest photometric catalogue of GC candidates in order to accurately characterise the spatial distribution of the relaxed population of GCs. To investigate the presence of non-relaxed structures in the kinematic catalogue of GCs, we used the relaxed point-symmetric velocity field as determined by the host's PNe population. We used anisotropic Jeans modelling under axisymmetric assumptions together with the Gaussian likelihood and GCs as discrete tracers. The gravitational potential is generated by flattened stellar and dark matter distributions. We leveraged the different orbital properties of the blue and red GCs – such as rotation and velocity anisotropy – to model both populations separately. By minimising χ2, we iteratively find the best-fit parameters. Results. We find that the discrete kinematics of the GCs are consistent with being drawn from an underlying relaxed velocity field determined from PNe. The best-fit parameters of the gravitational potential recovered from the blue and red GCs separately agree well and we use them to compute the final results: M200 = 1.86−0.691.61 × 1012 M⊙, M⋆/LB = 2.98−0.78+0.96, and the flattening qDM = 1.45−0.53+0.78. Both GC populations show mild rotation, with red having a slightly stronger rotational signature and radially biased orbits, and blue GCs preferring negative velocity anisotropy. Conclusions. An oblate or a spherical dark matter halo of NGC 5128 is strongly disfavoured by our modelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new H- and K-band spectroscopy for the bulge of M31, taken with the LUCI spectrograph at the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT). We studied radial trends of CO absorption features (namely, CO1.58, CO1.60, CO1.64, CO1.66, CO1.68, CO2.30, CO2.32, and CO2.35) in the bulge of M31, out to a galactocentric distance of ∼100″ (∼380 pc). We find that most COs do not exhibit a strong radial gradient, despite the strong metallicity gradient inferred from the optical spectral range, except for CO1.64, showing a steep increase in the center. We compared the observed line strengths to predictions of different state-of-the-art stellar population models, including an updated version of EMILES models, which also uses the extended IRTF spectral library. The observed COs are close to models' predictions, but in some models they turn out to be underestimated. We find that the lack of radial gradients is due to the combination of increasing CO strength with metallicity and C abundance, and decreasing CO strength with IMF slope and O abundance. We speculate that the steep gradient of CO1.64 might be due to Na overabundance. Remarkably, we were able to fit, at the same time, optical indices and all the NIR COs (except for CO1.68), leaving abundance ratios (i.e., [C/Fe], [O/Fe], and [Mg/Fe]) as free-fitting parameters, imposing age and metallicity constraints from the optical spectral range, with no significant contribution from intermediate-age populations (∼1 Gyr-old). For the majority of the bulge, we find [Mg/Fe] ∼ 0.15 dex, [O/Fe] larger than [Mg/Fe] (by ∼0.1 dex), and C abundance consistent with that of Mg. In the central (few arcsec) region, we still find an enhancement of O and Mg, but significantly lower [C/Fe]. We find that the COs' line strengths of the bulge are significantly lower than those of massive galaxies, possibly because of a difference in carbon abundance, as well as, to some extent, total metallicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We provide an in-depth analysis of the COSMOS-Web ring, an Einstein ring at z ≈ 2 that we serendipitously discovered during the data reduction of the COSMOS-Web survey and that could be the most distant lens discovered to date. Methods. We extracted the visible and near-infrared photometry of the source and the lens from more than 25 bands. We combined these observations with far-infrared detections to study the dusty nature of the source and we derived the photometric redshifts and physical properties of both the lens and the source with three different spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting codes. Using JWST/NIRCam images, we also produced two lens models to (i) recover the total mass of the lens, (ii) derive the magnification of the system, (iii) reconstruct the morphology of the lensed source, and (iv) measure the slope of the total mass density profile of the lens. Results. We find the lens to be a very massive elliptical galaxy at z = 2.02 ± 0.02 with a total mass within the Einstein radius of Mtot(<θEin = (3.66 ± 0.36) × 1011M⊙ and a total stellar mass of M⋆ = 1.37−0.11+0.14 × 1011 M⊙. We also estimate it to be compact and quiescent with a specific star formation rate below 10−13 yr. Compared to stellar-to-halo mass relations from the literature, we find that the total mass of the lens within the Einstein radius is consistent with the presence of a dark matter (DM) halo of total mass Mh = 1.09−0.57+1.46 × 1013 M⊙. In addition, the background source is a M⋆ = (1.26 ± 0.17) × 1010M⊙ star-forming galaxy (SFR ≈ (78 ± 15) M⊙ yr) at z = 5.48 ± 0.06. The morphology reconstructed in the source plane shows two clear components with different colors. Dust attenuation values from SED fitting and nearby detections in the far infrared also suggest that the background source could be at least partially dust-obscured. Conclusions. We find the lens at z ≈ 2. Its total, stellar, and DM halo masses are consistent within the Einstein ring, so we do not need any unexpected changes in our description of the lens such as changing its initial mass function or including a non-negligible gas contribution. The most likely solution for the lensed source is at z ≈ 5.5. Its reconstructed morphology is complex and highly wavelength dependent, possibly because it is a merger or a main sequence galaxy with a heterogeneous dust distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. How the quiescent galaxies evolve with redshift and the factors that impact their evolution are still debated. It is still unclear what the dominant mechanisms of passive galaxy growth are and what role is played by the environment in shaping their evolutionary paths over cosmic time. Aims. The population of quiescent galaxies is altered over time by several processes that can affect their mean properties. Our aim is to study the mass–size relation (MSR) of the quiescent population and to understand how the environment shapes the MSR at intermediate redshift. Methods. We used the VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey (VIPERS), a large spectroscopic survey of ∼90 000 galaxies in the redshift range 0.5 ≤ z ≤ 1.2. We selected a mass-complete sample of 4786 passive galaxies based on the NUVrK diagram and refined it using the Dn4000 spectral index to study the MSR of the passive population over 0.5 ≤ z ≤ 0.9. The impact of the environment on the MSR and on the growth of the quiescent population is studied through the density contrast. Results. The slope and the intercept of the MSR, α = 0.62 ± 0.04 and log(A) = 0.52 ± 0.01, agree well with values from the literature at the same redshift. The intercept decreases with redshift, Re(z) = 8.20 × (1 + z)−1.70, while the slope remains roughly constant, and the same trend is observed in the low-density (LD) and high-density (HD) environments. Thanks to the largest spectroscopic sample at 0.5 ≤ z ≤ 0.9, these results are not prone to redshift uncertainties from photometric measurements. We find that the average size of the quiescent population in the LD and HD environments are identical within 3σ and this result is robust against a change in the definition of the LD and HD environments or a change in the selection of quiescent galaxies. In the LD and HD environments, ∼30 and ∼40% of the population have experienced a minor merger process between 0.5 ≤ z ≤ 0.9. However, minor mergers account only for 30–40% of the size evolution in this redshift range, the remaining evolution likely being due to the progenitor bias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High resolution X-ray spectra reveal hidden cooling flows depositing cold gas at the centres of massive nearby early-type galaxies with little sign of normal star formation. Optical observations are revealing that a bottom-heavy initial mass function is common within the inner kpc of similar galaxies. We revive the possibility that a low-mass star formation mode is operating due to the high thermal pressure in the cooling flow, thus explaining the accumulation of low-mass stars. We further explore whether such a mode operated in early high-redshift galaxies and has sporadically continued to the present day. The idea links observed distant galaxies with black holes which are ultramassive for their stellar mass, nearby red nuggets and massive early-type galaxies. Nearby elliptical galaxies may be red but they are not dead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lenticular galaxies are notoriously misclassified as elliptical galaxies and, as such, a (disc inclination)-dependent correction for dust is often not applied to the magnitudes of dusty lenticular galaxies. This results in overly red galaxy colours, impacting their distribution in the colour–magnitude diagram. It is revealed how this has led to an underpopulation of the 'green valley' by hiding a 'green mountain' of massive dust-rich lenticular galaxies – known to be built from gas-rich major mergers – within the 'red sequence' of colour–(stellar mass) diagrams. Correcting for dust, a 'green mountain' appears at M *,gal ∼ 1011 M⊙, along with signs of an extension to lower masses producing a 'green range' or 'green ridge' on the green side of the 'red sequence' and 'blue cloud.' The 'red sequence' is shown to be comprised of two components: a red plateau defined by elliptical galaxies with a near-constant colour and by lower-mass dust-poor lenticular galaxies, which are mostly a primordial population but may include faded/transformed spiral galaxies. The presence of the quasi-triangular-shaped galaxy evolution sequence, previously called the 'Triangal', is revealed in the galaxy colour–(stellar mass) diagram. It tracks the speciation of galaxies and their associated migration through the diagram. The connection of the 'Triangal' to previous galaxy morphology sequences (Fork, Trident, and Comb) is also shown herein. Finally, the colour–(black hole mass) diagram is revisited, revealing how the dust correction generates a blue–green sequence for the spiral and dust-rich lenticular galaxies that is offset from a green–red sequence defined by the dust-poor lenticular and elliptical galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study of the 'Resolving supermAssive Black hole Binaries In galacTic hydrodynamical Simulations' (RABBITS) series, we investigate the orbital evolution of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) during galaxy mergers. We simulate both disc and elliptical galaxy mergers using the ketju code, which can simultaneously follow galaxy (hydro-)dynamics and small-scale SMBH dynamics with post-Newtonian corrections. With our SMBH binary subgrid model, we show how active galactic nuclei (AGNs) feedback affects galaxy properties and SMBH coalescence. We find that simulations without AGN feedback exhibit excessive star formation, resulting in merger remnants that deviate from observed properties. Kinetic AGN feedback proves more effective than thermal AGN feedback in expelling gas from the centre and quenching star formation. The different central galaxy properties, which are a result of distinct AGN feedback models, lead to varying rates of SMBH orbital decay. In the dynamical friction phase, galaxies with higher star formation and higher SMBH masses possess denser centres, become more resistant to tidal stripping, experience greater dynamical friction, and consequently form SMBH binaries earlier. As AGN feedback reduces gas densities in the centres, dynamical friction by stars dominates over gas. In the SMBH hardening phase, compared to elliptical mergers, disc mergers exhibit higher central densities of newly formed stars, resulting in accelerated SMBH hardening and shorter merger time-scales (i.e. |$\lesssim 500$| Myr versus |$\gtrsim 1$| Gyr). Our findings highlight the importance of AGN feedback and its numerical implementation in understanding the SMBH coalescing process, a key focus for low-frequency gravitational wave observatories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The co-evolution between supermassive black holes and their environment is most directly traced by the hot atmospheres of dark matter halos. The cooling of the hot atmosphere supplies the central regions with fresh gas, igniting active galactic nuclei (AGN) with long duty cycles. The outflows from the central engine tightly couple with the surrounding gaseous medium and provide the dominant heating source, preventing runaway cooling. Every major modern hydrodynamical simulation suite now includes a prescription for AGN feedback to reproduce the realistic populations of galaxies. However, the mechanisms governing the feeding/feedback cycle between the central black holes and their surrounding galaxies and halos are still poorly understood. Galaxy groups are uniquely suited to constrain the mechanisms governing the cooling–heating balance, as the energy supplied by the central AGN can exceed the gravitational binding energy of halo gas particles. Here, we provide a brief overview of our knowledge of the impact of AGN on the hot atmospheres of galaxy groups, with a specific focus on the thermodynamic profiles of the groups. We then present our on-going efforts to improve on the implementation of AGN feedback in galaxy evolution models by providing precise measurements of the properties of galaxy groups. We introduce the XMM-Newton Group AGN Project (X-GAP), a large program on XMM-Newton targeting a sample of 49 galaxy groups out to R 500 c . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the constraints provided by the Euclid space observatory on the physical properties of dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs) at |$z\gtrsim 1.5$| detected in wide area submillimetre surveys with Herschel. We adopt a physical model for the high- z progenitors of spheroidal galaxies, which form the bulk of DSFGs at |$z\gtrsim 1.5$|⁠. We improve the model by combining the output of the equations of the model with a formalism for the spectral energy distribution (SED). After optimizing the SED parameters to reproduce the measured infrared luminosity function and number counts of DFSGs, we simulated a sample of DSFGs over 100  |$\hbox{deg}^2$| and then applied a |$5\, \sigma$| detection limit of |$37\,$|  mJy at 250  |$\mu$| m. We estimated the redshifts from the Euclid data and then fitted the Euclid + Herschel photometry with the code CIGALE to extract the physical parameters. We found that 100 per cent of the Herschel galaxies are detected in all 4 Euclid bands above |$3\, \sigma$|⁠. For 87 per cent of these sources the accuracy on |$1 + z$| is better than 15 per cent. The sample comprises mostly massive, i.e. |$\log (M_{\star }/{\rm M}_{\odot })\sim 10.5{\!-\!}12.9$|⁠ , highly star forming, i.e. |$\log (\hbox{SFR}/{\rm M}_{\odot }\hbox{yr}^{-1})\sim 1.5{\!-\!}4$|⁠ , dusty, i.e. |$\log (M_{\rm dust}/{\rm M}_{\odot })\sim 7.5{\!-\!}9.9$|⁠ , galaxies. The measured stellar masses have a dispersion of 0.19 dex around the true value, thus showing that Euclid will provide reliable stellar mass estimates for the majority of the bright DSFGs at |$z\gtrsim 1.5$| detected by Herschel. We also explored the effect of complementing the Euclid photometry with that from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory/LSST. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present observational evidence of the impact of triaxiality on radial profiles that extend to 40 Mpc from galaxy cluster centres in optical measurements. We perform a stacked profile analysis from a sample of thousands of nearly relaxed galaxy clusters from public data releases of the Dark Energy Survey and the Dark Energy Camera Legacy Survey. Using the central galaxy elliptical orientation angle as a proxy for galaxy cluster orientation, we measure cluster weak lensing and excess galaxy density axis-aligned profiles, extracted along the central galaxy's major or minor axes on the plane of the sky. Our measurements show a ≳ 2σ–3σ difference per radial bin between the normalized axis-aligned profiles. The profile difference between each axis-aligned profile and the azimuthally averaged profile (⁠|$\sim \pm 10\,\rm per\ cent-20~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| along major/minor axis) appears inside the clusters (∼0.4 Mpc) and extends to the large-scale structure regime (∼10–20 Mpc). The magnitude of the difference appears to be relatively insensitive to cluster richness and redshift, and extends further out in the weak lensing surface mass density than in the galaxy overdensity. Looking forward, this measurement can easily be applied to other observational or simulation data sets and can inform the systematics in cluster mass modelling related to triaxiality. We expect imminent upcoming wide-area deep surveys, such as the Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time, to improve our quantification of optical signatures of cluster triaxiality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mass distribution in massive elliptical galaxies encodes their evolutionary history, thus providing an avenue to constrain the baryonic astrophysics in their evolution. The power-law assumption for the radial mass profile in ellipticals has been sufficient to describe several observables to the noise level, including strong lensing and stellar dynamics. In this paper, we quantitatively constrained any deviation, or the lack thereof, from the power-law mass profile in massive ellipticals through joint lensing–dynamics analysis of a large statistical sample with 77 galaxy–galaxy lens systems. We performed an improved and uniform lens modelling of these systems from archival Hubble Space Telescope imaging using the automated lens modelling pipeline dolphin. We combined the lens model posteriors with the stellar dynamics to constrain the deviation from the power law after accounting for the line-of-sight lensing effects, a first for analyses on galaxy–galaxy lenses. We find that the Sloan Lens ACS Survey lens galaxies with a mean redshift of 0.2 are consistent with the power-law profile within 1.1σ (2.8σ) and the Strong Lensing Legacy Survey lens galaxies with a mean redshift of 0.6 are consistent within 0.8σ (2.1σ), for a spatially constant (Osipkov–Merritt) stellar anisotropy profile. We adopted the spatially constant anisotropy profile as our baseline choice based on previous dynamical observables of local ellipticals. However, spatially resolved stellar kinematics of lens galaxies are necessary to differentiate between the two anisotropy models. Future studies will use our lens models to constrain the mass distribution individually in the dark matter and baryonic components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Jeans equations do not form a closed system, and to solve them a parametrization relating the velocity moments is often adopted. For axisymmetric models, a phenomenological choice (the ' b -ansatz') is widely used for the relation between the vertical (⁠|$\sigma _z^2$|⁠) and radial (⁠|$\sigma _R^2$|⁠) components of the velocity dispersion tensor, thus breaking their identity present in two-integral systems. However, the way in which the ansatz affects the resulting kinematical fields can be quite complicated, so that the analysis of these fields is usually performed only after numerically computing them. We present here a general procedure to study the properties of the ansatz-dependent fields |$\overline{v_{\varphi }^2}$|⁠ , |$\Delta =\overline{v_{\varphi }^2}- \sigma _z^2$| and |$\Delta _R= \overline{v_{\varphi }^2}- \sigma _R^2$|⁠. Specifically, the effects of the b -ansatz can be determined before solving the Jeans equations once the behaviour over the (R, z)-plane of three easy-to-build ansatz-independent functions is known. The procedure also constrains the ansatz to exclude unphysical results (as a negative |$\overline{v_{\varphi }^2}$|⁠). The method is illustrated by discussing the cases of three well-known galaxy models: the Miyamoto & Nagai and Satoh discs, and the Binney logarithmic halo, for which the regions and the constraints on the ansatz values can be determined analytically; a two-component (Miyamoto & Nagai plus logarithmic halo) model is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. As the nearest accessible massive early-type galaxy, NGC 5128 presents an exceptional opportunity to measure dark matter halo parameters for a representative elliptical galaxy. Aims. Here we take advantage of rich new observational datasets of large-radius tracers to perform dynamical modeling of NGC 5128 Methods. We used a discrete axisymmetric anisotropic Jeans approach with a total tracer population of nearly 1800 planetary nebulae, globular clusters, and dwarf satellite galaxies extending to a projected distance of ∼250 kpc from the galaxy center to model the dynamics of NGC 5128. Results. We find that a standard Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) halo provides an excellent fit to nearly all the data, except for a subset of the planetary nebulae that appear to be out of virial equilibrium. The best-fit dark matter halo has a virial mass of Mvir = 4.4−1.4+2.4 × 1012 M⊙, and NGC 5128 appears to sit below the mean stellar mass–halo mass and globular cluster mass–halo mass relations, which both predict a halo virial mass closer to Mvir ∼ 1013 M⊙. The inferred NFW virial concentration is cvir = 5.6−1.6+2.4, which is nominally lower than cvir ∼ 9 predicted from published cvir–Mvir relations, but within the ∼30% scatter found in simulations. The best-fit dark matter halo constitutes only ∼10% of the total mass at one effective radius but ∼50% at five effective radii. The derived halo parameters are consistent within the uncertainties for models with differing tracer populations, anisotropies, and inclinations. Conclusions. Our analysis highlights the value of comprehensive dynamical modeling of nearby galaxies and the importance of using multiple tracers to allow cross-checks for model robustness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Star formation histories (SFHs) are essential for understanding galaxy formation and evolution. We present the mean SFHs of 148 dwarf lenticular galaxies (dS0s) derived from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey spectra. These SFHs reveal two distinct periods of active star formation. The first period, concluding approximately 6 Gyr ago, witnessed the formation of predominantly old, metal-poor (Z  = 0.0004) stars, accounting for approximately 60 per cent of the stellar mass and 30 per cent of the luminosity. The scarcity of extremely metal-poor (Z  = 0.0001) stars suggests pre-enrichment during the reionization era. Star formation gradually waned during this initial phase. In contrast, the second period, ending around 1 Gyr ago, exhibited a peak in the middle of the period, contributing to the formation of moderately old stellar populations with intermediate metallicity. The SFHs of dS0 galaxies show a clear dependence on stellar mass, with more massive dS0s forming stars earlier. However, we find no significant correlation with morphological properties such as outer spiral arms and nucleation. The SFHs of dS0 galaxies share many similarities with those of dwarf elliptical galaxies, suggesting a common origin, mostly not primordial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the discovery of a (1.0 ± 0.28) × 1010 M⊙ supermassive black hole (BH) at the centre of NGC 708, the Brightest Cluster Galaxy of Abell 262. Such high BH masses are very rare and allow to investigate BH–host galaxy scaling relations at the high mass end, which in turn provide hints about the (co)evolution of such systems. NGC 708 is found to be an outlier in all the canonical scaling relations except for those linking the BH mass to the core properties. The galaxy mass-to-light ratio points to a Kroupa IMF rather than Salpeter, with this finding confirmed using photometry in two different bands. We perform this analysis using our novel triaxial Schwarzschild code to integrate orbits in a five-dimensional space, using a semiparametric deprojected light density to build the potential and non-parametric line-of-sight velocity distributions (LOSVDs) derived from long-slit spectra recently acquired at Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) to exploit the full information in the kinematic. We find that the galaxy geometry changes as a function of the radius going from prolate, nearly spherical in the central regions to triaxial at large radii, highlighting the need to go beyond constant shape profiles. Our analysis is only the second of its kind and will systematically be used in the future to hunt supermassive BH in giant ellipticals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study two-parametric families of spatial orbits given in the analytic form f (x , y , z) = c 1 , g (x , y , z) = c 2 ( c 1 , c 2 = const.) which are produced by three-dimensional potentials V = V (x , y , z) inside a material concentration. These potentials must verify two linear partial differential equations (PDEs) which are the basic equations of the 3D Inverse Problem of Newtonian Dynamics and the well-known Poisson's equation. A suitable class of potentials for this case is the axisymmetric potentials V = B (x 2 + y 2 , z) which have applications in astrophysical problems. For the given density function ρ = ρ (x , y , z) , ρ = ρ 0 = c o n s t ., or, ρ = ρ (z) and a pre-assigned family of orbits, three-dimensional potentials producing this family of orbits are found in each case. We focus our interest on the cored, logarithmic potentials and another one of fourth degree describing elliptical galaxies. The two-parametric families of straight lines in 3D space are also considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]