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Competitiveness and cooperativeness are important predictors of social and learning outcomes at school. Drawing on evidence suggesting that contexts with high income inequality foster an ethos of competitiveness and inhibit cooperativeness in the economic environment, we examine whether income inequality is also associated with more competitiveness and less cooperativeness in the academic environment. We conducted four preregistered studies to test this idea. In Study 1, analysis of the OECD PISA 2018 data set ([approximately equal to]500,000 15-year-old students from 75 countries) revealed that students from economically unequal countries perceive their schoolmates as more competitive and less cooperative. In Study 2a and 2b, analysis of the PISA 2003 (250,000+ students from 38 countries) and PISA 2000 (75,000+ students from 32 countries) data sets revealed that students from unequal countries are themselves more competitive and, surprisingly, also more cooperative. Follow-up analyses resolved this apparent paradox, showing that students from unequal countries are oriented toward instrumental rather than intrinsic cooperativeness (i.e., using cooperation as a strategic tool to achieve academic success rather than for the enjoyment of the activity itself). Study 3 offers a conceptual experimental replication ([approximately equal to]850 young adults imagining going back to school) and indicates that induced income inequality (a) increases perceived competitiveness, (b) decreases perceived cooperativeness, (c) prompts an orientation toward competitiveness, and (d) prompts an orientation toward instrumental rather than intrinsic cooperativeness. Results are discussed in relation to the multidisciplinary literatures on the psychology of income inequality, the selective function of school systems, coopetition, self-determination, and cooperative learning.

Goal complexes, which are formed by pairing standards of competence strivings with their underlying reasons, are essential to an understanding of achievement goal regulation. This paper examines goal complexes that cross other-approach and other-avoidance goals with the approach-avoidance dimensions of Big Three motives as underlying reasons. 220 undergraduates participated in Study 1 which developed and validated the Self-Attributed Motive Scale to measure hope of success, fear of failure, hope of affiliation, fear of rejection, hope of power, and fear of loss of power. Additionally, 235 undergraduates participated in Study 2 where goal complexes were created by crossing the motive items developed in Study 1 with other-approach and other-avoidance goals. The predictive utility of the resultant goal complexes was examined in relation to positive well-being (positive learning-related emotions and engagement), negative well-being (negative learning-related emotions and burnout), and academic buoyancy. The contributions of the studies to the self-attributed motive and goal complex literatures are discussed.

Laboratory research has demonstrated that when students are instructed to use retrieval (i.e., recalling from memory information to be learned) rather than rereading (i.e., reading the material repeatedly) they learn better. However, little is known about spontaneous use of retrieval. In the present studies, we designed a scale to measure spontaneous use, perceived enjoyment, perceived effort, and perceived effectiveness of retrieval and rereading. Across two studies, we found that students perceived retrieval to be more enjoyable, effortful, and effective than rereading. In Study 2, we additionally examined the relation between achievement goals, spontaneous study strategies, and exam performance. We found that both mastery-approach goals and mastery-avoidance goals predicted use of retrieval and rereading. No other achievement goals predicted use of study strategies. We also found that spontaneous use of retrieval positively predicted exam performance; there was no relation between use of rereading and exam performance. These studies suggest that like instructed use of retrieval, spontaneous use of retrieval facilitates exam performance. However, unlike instructed use of rereading, spontaneous use of rereading is not deleterious to exam performance. This may be due to variation in the time students spontaneously spend studying (in contrast to a lab task where total time studying is the same across all participants). This initial step in investigating spontaneous use of study strategies is important for understanding and encouraging effective approaches to studying.

Previous research has shown that red can increase men's perception of women's attractiveness. However, this effect is absent under certain conditions, such as when women have masculine, unattractive, or older features. We sought to test whether this red-attraction effect would be present at the other end of the continuum, specifically, for highly attractive, provocatively dressed young women. In three experiments (the second and third of which were pre-registered), we manipulated the color of highly attractive models' lingerie and assessed men's perceptions of their sexual receptivity, attractiveness, and sexual appeal. Results revealed higher ratings across each variable for women in red, relative to green, across all 3 experiments. Furthermore, in Experiment 3, perceived sexual receptivity mediated the relations between red and both attractiveness and sexual appeal. Overall, these results show that the color red can further bolster the attractiveness and desirability of already highly attractive and desirable woman., Author(s): Adam D. Pazda [sup.1] , Christopher A. Thorstenson [sup.2] , Andrew J. Elliot [sup.3] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.267160.4, 0000 0000 9205 7135, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina [...]

BackgroundEchocardiography is commonly used for assessing cardiac structure and function in various species including non-human primates. A few previous studies reported normal echocardiographic reference intervals of clinically healthy rhesus macaques under sedation. However, these studies were under-powered, and the techniques were not standardized. In addition, body weight, age, and sex matched reference intervals should be established as echocardiographic measurements are commonly influenced by these variables. The purpose of this study was to establish reference intervals for complete echocardiographic parameters based on a large cohort of clinically healthy rhesus macaques with wide ranges of weight and age distributions using allometric scaling.ResultsA total of 823 rhesus macaques (ages 6 months to 31 years old; body weights 1.4 to 22.6 kg) were enrolled. Of these rhesus macaques, 421 were males and 402 were females. They were assessed with a complete echocardiographic examination including structural and functional evaluation under sedation with ketamine hydrochloride. The reference intervals of the key echocardiographic parameters were indexed to weight, age, and sex by calculating the coefficients of the allometric eq. Y = aMb. On correlation matrix, body weight, age, sex, and heart rate were significantly correlated with various echocardiographic parameters and some of the parameters were strongly correlated with body weight and age. Multiple regression analysis revealed that heart rate and body weight statistically significantly predicted several echocardiographic parameters. Valve regurgitation including tricuspid, aortic, pulmonic, and mitral regurgitations without other cardiac structural and functional abnormalities are common in clinically healthy rhesus macaques under ketamine sedation.ConclusionsIn this study, the reference intervals of echocardiographic parameters were established by performing complete echocardiographic examinations on a large number of clinical healthy rhesus macaques. In addition, allometric scaling was performed based on their weight, and further indexed to age and sex. These allometrically scaled reference intervals can be used to accurately evaluate echocardiographic data in rhesus macaques and diagnose structural and functional evidence of cardiac disease.

In Haiti, 49% of students cannot read a single word in Creole by the time they start grade 3, which is reflective of a broader learning crisis in low-income and fragile contexts. Read to Learn, an early-grade literacy intervention, was implemented and evaluated from fall 2014 through spring 2016 with the aim of improving students' reading skills. Students were given learning materials in their mother tongue, teachers were provided with training and instructional coaching, and various supports for program implementation were established. In a randomized evaluation, the authors assessed students' reading skills at the beginning of grade 1 and at the end of grades 1 and 2 in treatment and control schools. The authors estimated the impact of the program at the end of grades 1 and 2 with a hierarchical linear model and found positive effects on emergent reading skills and oral reading fluency, with effect sizes ranging between 0.19 and 0.79. The results of this study are an important contribution to knowledge about what works to improve literacy outcomes for students in Haiti and other fragile contexts.

Emotion transmission often occurs in social interactions but has attracted limited attention in the education domain. Given the frequent interactions among teachers and students, not only teachers' emotions but also peers' emotions may influence students' learning. This preregistered experimental study investigated how peers' emotions (either enjoyment, neutral state, or frustration) affect students' emotion, motivation, and cognition in observational learning of playing a science game. University students (N = 210) watched a video in which a peer model played a game and displayed either enjoyment, a neutral state, or frustration. The data were analyzed by random intercept cross-lagged panel models with Bayesian estimation and generalized order-restricted information criterion approximation. We ran two set of analyses. In Analysis A, we used the peer emotion display that was intended as the condition variable, excluding participants who perceived a different emotion. In Analysis B, we used participants' perception of the peer emotion as the condition variable. Both Analyses A and B revealed that students exposed to peers' enjoyment reported higher enjoyment, relaxation, mastery-approach goals, and game performance, and lower frustration, anger, boredom, and mental effort than those exposed to peers' frustration. We conclude that peers' emotions affect students' achievement emotions, mastery-approach goals, mental effort, and game performance differentially. Educators and researchers should attend to emotion transmission among their students and the role of contagion in education. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Emotion transmission has primarily been studied in social psychology rather than educational psychology. Our findings suggest that emotion transmission occurs among students: Peers' emotions affect students' motivation, cognitive processes, and performance. The results of this study advance the field of emotion transmission, achievement emotions, achievement goals, instructional design, and particularly, their interconnection. Our research suggests that educators would do well to attend to the subtle influence of students' emotions on others in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescence is important for the development of achievement motivation, including achievement goal pursuit. Longitudinal research is scarce on adolescents' goal development and its implications for academic outcomes. In our research, we first present a systematic review of findings on achievement goals in adolescence. Then we report 2 longitudinal studies with German adolescents in which we investigated the separate as well as joint development of achievement goals, interest, and achievement in the domain of mathematics. Study 1 comprised 745 students assessed in 4 waves in grades 5-7 (43% female; age M[subscript T1] = 10.66). Study 2 comprised 1,420 students assessed in 4 waves in grades 5-8 (47% female; age M[subscript T1] = 10.58). Students reported their mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals and their interest in mathematics. Mathematics achievement was assessed by school grades (Studies 1 and 2) and standardized test scores (Study 1). Data were analyzed using latent growth curve, multiple process, and cross-lagged models. Findings for the 2 studies evidenced a substantial degree of consistency. All goals decreased and the decrease became smaller over time in most instances. Controlling for nonfocal goals and demographic variables (socioeconomic status, gender), multiple process models revealed that change in mastery and performance-approach goals was positively related or unrelated to change in interest and achievement, whereas change in performance-avoidance goals was negatively related or unrelated to change in interest and achievement. Cross-lagged models revealed that relations between the achievement goals on the one hand and interest and achievement on the other hand were reciprocal rather than unidirectional.

The present research sought to integrate self-determination theory and the achievement goal approach to achievement motivation by examining achievement goals as mediators of the link between psychological need support and both intrinsic and external motivation. We found support for our proposed integration, as mastery-approach and performance-approach goals were documented as partial mediators of the links between autonomy and competence need support, on the one hand, and intrinsic and external motivation, on the other. Statistical evidence was not obtained for the mediational role of performance-avoidance goals. The findings are discussed in terms of the ways in which they enrich both the self-determination and achievement goal frameworks.

Introduction: Our recent research has demonstrated that social comparison orientation of ability (SCO-ability) is an antecedent of trait competitiveness (TC), and TC mediates the relation between SCO-ability and domain-specific risktaking. TC is a multi-dimensional trait, therefore we sought to expand on prior research by examining whether SCO-ability predicted two distinct dimensions of TC: hypercompetitive orientation (HCO) and self-development competitive orientation (SDCO). Methods: We investigated how these different dimensions of TC mediated the relation between SCO-ability and both overall and domain-specific risk-taking in two correlational studies of 622 college students (313 males, mean age = 22.10, SD = 2.35) and 717 adult workers (368 males, mean age = 27.92, SD = 5.11). Results: We found that SCO-ability positively predicted HCO. Together, SCOability and HCO predicted overall risk-taking and risk-taking in the recreational and ethical domains in both samples. HCO mediated the relation between SCOability and both overall risk-taking and risk-taking in the recreational and ethical domains. Additionally, SCO-ability positively predicted SDCO. SCO-ability and SDCO mainly predicted risk-taking in the recreational domain in both studies. SDCO mediated the relation between SCO-ability and risk-taking only in the recreational domain. Discussion: Collectively, the findings above advance our understanding of the relation between competition and risk-taking by using differentiated measures of TC (HCO and SDCO). Our findings suggest that HCO is more strongly related to risk-taking than SDCO, thereby refining the possible role of SCO-ability and TC in predicting overall risk-taking and domain-specific risk-taking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]