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Background and objective. Prior studies have suggested that after stroke there is a time-limited period of increased responsiveness to training as a result of heightened plasticity—a sensitive period thought to be induced by ischemia itself. Using a mouse model, we have previously shown that most training-associated recovery after a caudal forelimb area (CFA) stroke occurs in the first week and is attributable to reorganization in a medial premotor area (AGm). The existence of a stroke-induced sensitive period leads to the counterintuitive prediction that a second stroke should reopen this window and promote full recovery from the first stroke. To test this prediction, we induced a second stroke in the AGm of mice with incomplete recovery after a first stroke in CFA. Methods. Mice were trained to perform a skilled prehension (reach-to-grasp) task to an asymptotic level of performance, after which they underwent photocoagulation-induced stroke in CFA. After a 7-day poststroke delay, the mice were then retrained to asymptote. We then induced a second stroke in the AGm, and after only a 1-day delay, retrained the mice. Results. Recovery of prehension was incomplete when training was started after a 7-day poststroke delay and continued for 19 days. However, a second focal stroke in the AGm led to a dramatic response to 9 days of training, with full recovery to normal levels of performance. Conclusions. New ischemia can reopen a sensitive period of heightened responsiveness to training and mediate full recovery from a previous stroke.

Background and Purpose— Data from both humans and animal models suggest that most recovery from motor impairment after stroke occurs in a sensitive period that lasts only weeks and is mediated, in part, by an increased responsiveness to training. Here, we used a mouse model of focal cortical stroke to test 2 hypotheses. First, we investigated whether responsiveness to training decreases over time after stroke. Second, we tested whether fluoxetine, which can influence synaptic plasticity and stroke recovery, can prolong the period over which large training-related gains can be elicited after stroke. Methods— Mice were trained to perform a skilled prehension task to an asymptotic level of performance after which they underwent stroke induction in the caudal forelimb area. The mice were then retrained after a 1- or 7-day delay with and without fluoxetine. Results— Recovery of prehension after a caudal forelimb area stroke was complete if training was initiated 1 day after stroke but incomplete if it was delayed by 7 days. In contrast, if fluoxetine was administered at 24 hours after stroke, then complete recovery of prehension was observed even with the 7-day training delay. Fluoxetine seemed to mediate its beneficial effect by reducing inhibitory interneuron expression in intact premotor cortex rather than through effects on infarct volume or cell death. Conclusions— There is a gradient of diminishing responsiveness to motor training over the first week after stroke. Fluoxetine can overcome this gradient and maintain maximal levels of responsiveness to training even 7 days after stroke.

Background: and purpose - Data in humans and in non-human animal models suggest that most recovery from motor impairment occurs in the first 4 weeks after stroke and is mediated in part by increased responsiveness to training in this short time period. We tested the hypothesis that there is a gradient of diminishing responsiveness to training in the first week after stroke in the mouse. We then tested whether fluoxetine can extend the time window over which large training-related gains can be expected. Methods: Adult C57Bl/6 mice were trained to perform a skilled prehension task to an asymptotic level of performance after which they underwent photocoagulation-induced stroke or sham stroke in the caudal forelimb area (CFA can be considered rodent primary motor cortex). The mice were then retrained after a 1- or 7-day delay in the presence or absence of fluoxetine injected IP daily beginning after a 1- or 7-day delay. Results: Training-associated recovery of prehension was complete if training was initiated after a 1-day delay but incomplete if training was initiated after a 7-day delay, even with additional training days. Daily fluoxetine administration after stroke was associated with complete recovery of prehension even if training was delayed 7 days but only if fluoxetine was administered beginning 1 day but not 7 days after stroke. Conclusions: We conclude that there is a sensitive period 7 days after stroke during which motor training is more likely to promote recovery and that this period can be extended by fluoxetine only if administration begins during the first week after stroke. Our mouse model, with all of the attendant genetic benefits, may allow us to determine at the cellular and molecular level how behavioral training and endogenous plasticity interact to mediate recovery.

Background and Purpose— Motor recovery after ischemic stroke in primary motor cortex is thought to occur in part through training-enhanced reorganization in undamaged premotor areas, enabled by reductions in cortical inhibition. Here we used a mouse model of focal cortical stroke and a double-lesion approach to test the idea that a medial premotor area (medial agranular cortex [AGm]) reorganizes to mediate recovery of prehension, and that this reorganization is associated with a reduction in inhibitory interneuron markers. Methods— C57Bl/6 mice were trained to perform a skilled prehension task to an asymptotic level of performance after which they underwent photocoagulation-induced stroke in the caudal forelimb area. The mice were then retrained and inhibitory interneuron immunofluorescence was assessed in prechosen, anatomically defined neocortical areas. Mice then underwent a second photocoagulation-induced stroke in AGm. Results— Focal caudal forelimb area stroke led to a decrement in skilled prehension. Training-associated recovery of prehension was associated with a reduction in parvalbumin, calretinin, and calbindin expression in AGm. Subsequent infarction of AGm led to reinstatement of the original deficit. Conclusions— We conclude that with training, AGm can reorganize after a focal motor stroke and serve as a new control area for prehension. Reduced inhibition may represent a marker for reorganization or it is necessary for reorganization to occur. Our mouse model, with all of the attendant genetic benefits, may allow us to determine at the cellular and molecular levels how behavioral training and endogenous plasticity interact to mediate recovery.