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Tactile displays promise to improve the information-processing capacity of operators, especially when used in conjunction with visual and auditory displays. In this article, we describe current applications and future directions in tactile cuing.

As robot usage becomes more widespread, there is a pressing need to develop smaller, lighter robotic control systems that have good training transfer from larger systems; do not overload the operator cognitively or physically; and enable good performance across a variety of settings. This article describes four experiments designed to investigate options for scaling robot controllers for dismounted use. The authors evaluated many different controller characteristics, chosen from consideration of available options and guided by factors expected to affect operator performance in realistic missions. These factors included camera display screen size, comparisons of handheld versus head-mounted displays and split screen displays versus toggle-driven and multimodal displays, and three approaches to reducing the size of the control interface. Each configuration examined was chosen on the basis of theory-based expectations and availability of technology. Participants were 108 soldiers from various military occupational specialties with ages ranging from 21 to 38. Results demonstrated the following fruitful methods for reducing controller size: reducing driving displays to between 3.5 and 6.5 inches, using handheld displays (HHDs), adding a tactile belt to a toggle screen for driving and map reading, and miniaturizing existing control size. All recommended options for reducing controller size had no adverse impact on cognitive requirements or performance.

This study investigated the scalability of unmanned vehicle displays for dismounted warfighters. Task performance, workload, and preferences for three display devices were examined in two operational settings: teleoperation of an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) and intelligence gathering from a remote unmanned vehicle. Previous research has demonstrated variability in operational needs with regard to active teleoperation versus passive intelligence gathering. Thus, it was important to identify whether there was actually a dichotomy between the two in terms of screen space requirements and whether this difference stems from task differences or other factors. Thirty-one soldiers participated in a field study at Fort Benning, Georgia. They were required to perform teleoperation and intelligence-gathering tasks. Results reconfirmed the hypothesis that display type influences performance in intelligence-related tasks that require the use of video feed and digital map. No significant differences among display types were found in the UGV teleoperation task. Dismounted warfighters can adequately perform both active and passive duties with a handheld device on which the video window is as small as 4.3 inches in diameter. However, monocular helmet-mounted displays for robotic displays can be problematic and should be carefully assessed before use in dismounted warfighters’ missions.

In this paper, we present three field-based evaluations of a tactile land navigation system. In Experiment 1, we transition from a laboratory setting to rugged terrain used to train US Army soldier land navigation. Navigation in this challenging terrain requires careful attention to one's surroundings. Participants navigated 3 waypoints along 600 meters through heavily wooded terrain, using 1) map and compass, 2) standard alpha-numeric handheld GPS device, and 3) the tactile GPS system, while also responding to radio requests for information. Experiment 2 used the same challenging terrain during night operations, where participants must also search for live and silhouette targets, using 1) handheld GPS device, 2) head-mounted map-based GPS, and 3) the tactile GPS system. In addition to navigating, participants searched for silhouette and live (human) targets. Experiment 3 had participants navigate with 1) a commercial GPS arrow display, 2) the tactile GPS system, and 3) both together. We conclude that tactile navigation displays can be used in strenuous outdoor environments and can outperform visual displays under conditions of high cognitive and visual workload.

A surge of interest exists in multimodal research and interfaces. This is due, at least in part, to an exponential increase in the amount and type of information that can be presented to a user. When a great deal of information is presented via a single sensory modality, it can exceed the operator's capacity to manage the information efficiently, generating cognitive overload. As a consequence, the user's performance becomes susceptible to slower response times, loss of situational awareness, faulty decision making, and execution errors. Researchers and designers have responded to these issues with the development and application of multimodal information displays. The cross-disciplinary flavor of multimodal applications presents a challenge to the accumulation, evaluation, and dissemination of relevant research. We describe the development of a taxonomy for the evaluation and comparison of multimodal display research studies, and the implementation of the taxonomy into a database: the Multimodal Query System (MQueS).

The U.S. Army's Advanced Technology Objective (ATO) titled “Situational Understanding as an Enabler for the Unit of Action Maneuver Team” sponsored a series of investigations to assess the utility of tactile displays, both as standalone displays and as part of multi-modal displays. The data from the ATO experiments demonstrated three areas in which tactile systems showed potential to increase soldier performance. These areas were communications in dismounted stealth operations, the use of multi-modal alerts (tactile paired with visual) during high visual workload periods, and reduction in visual tasks during extremely high workload.

There is an extensive literature on tactile interfaces and their overall importance to human-computer interaction is increasing. In this presentation we critically examine the psychological, computer science, engineering, and human factors literatures for tactile devices. Two major classes of principles emerge: those taken directly from authors' publications and those synthesized from the literature. Over 800 specific principles emerged from our work. We developed a structure for organizing the principles and offer the principles for specific guidance to researchers and practitioners.

This study was an investigation of the effect of the four different types of maps (2-D north up [2D-NU] map; 2-D rotating [2D-R], course up map; third-person perspective [3PP] map; and an augmented reality [AR] display) on map-based task performance and cognitive load. Thirty-one Soldiers from the Officer Candidate School (OCS) at Fort Benning, GA, and one Staff Sergeant participated in the study. Each Soldier completed four scenarios; one with each of the four different types of maps. Performance was evaluated based on objective performance data, data collector observations, and Soldier questionnaires. Although the 2D-NU map was preferred by the most Soldiers, generally their performance and self-reported cognitive workload ratings with the 2D-R and the 3PP maps were not significantly worse than with the 2D-NU. All four maps types offered certain advantages, depending on the situation and terrain and should be further examined in a live experiment. It is possible that all four map types should be included on an end user device (EUD) so that Soldiers can choose the map based upon the situation and their preferences or so that they can move between maps when the situation warrants.

Multiple task demands of robotic operators can result in cognitive overload. We investigated the utility of offloading some of the operator tasks by examining three levels of automation: (1) teleoperation, (2) semi-autonomy (teleoperation with obstacle avoidance) and, (3) autonomy (reflexive waypoint navigation with obstacle avoidance) for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance of an area. Using a within-subjects design, twenty-seven Soldiers navigated a robot along a route littered with obstacles while looking for unexploded ordinance using the three levels of automation. They completed each condition twice, once while concurrently engaged in secondary cognitive tasks, and once without the secondary tasks. The secondary tasks interfered with course navigation in the teleoperation and semi-autonomous control conditions, but not in the autonomous control condition. Mental workload ratings were also higher in the teleoperation and semi-autonomous conditions than in the autonomous condition. There were more driving errors in the teleoperation condition than in the semi-autonomous and autonomous conditions. Although the automatic obstacle avoidance feature of the semi-autonomous condition reduced errors, it adversely impacted course completion times and made the operators feel as though they were competing with the feature for control of the robot. The Soldiers preferred full autonomy for all the navigation/maneuver tasks.

Two experiments examined the effectiveness of telepresence features during indoor and outdoor beyond-line-of-sight robot reconnaissance missions. In the first experiment, Soldier participants controlled a reconnaissance robot with two controllers developed by TNO Human Factors: one with and one without telepresence capabilities. Telepresence capabilities included a stereo visual display and a head-mounted camera that was guided by operator head movements. Soldiers performed equivalent search and identification tasks with each controller interface. Measures included indices of performance (e.g., time, accuracy), workload, situation awareness, and user-based ratings and feedback. Results from the first experiment indicated that while Soldiers preferred the telepresence system, performance outcomes were similar in both conditions. The second experiment was based on more challenging task demands and investigated the additional contribution of three-dimensional (3-D) audio capability for audio-based localization tasks. Results indicated that the 3-D audio combined with the head-track camera control enhanced audio-based search tasks. Feedback from Soldiers was overall positive. Suggestions for improvement included a more lightweight portable system, higher visual clarity, and enhanced ease of use.

This experiment was designed to investigate options for scaling robotic controllers for use by dismounted Soldiers. A touchscreen controller has the potential to be smaller and lighter than other controller devices because the display and controls are combined in one space. Soldiers performance using an Android touch-screen controller was compared with their performance using a baseline Xbox 360 joystick controller. Thirty Soldiers from the Officers Candidate School served as participants. Each Soldier completed outdoor and indoor driving courses using both controller types in counter-balanced order. Course completion times were significantly faster with the Xbox controller compared to the Android controller. In addition, there were significantly fewer driving errors and off-course errors with the Xbox controller. Total workload ratings were significantly lower for the Xbox than for the Android. Although the touch-screen controller can be used to teleoperate a robot, it has several shortcomings. The primary benefit of the touch-screen controller is its small size and light weight. However, the Android had substantial costs in terms of speed, accuracy, and workload associated with teleoperation. Touchscreen performance might be improved by incorporating haptic or auditory feedback and by recalibrating some functions such as modifying top speed, turning rate, and acceleration.

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of display type and robotic employment techniques on robotic control during dynamic dismounted Soldier operations. The study took place at Fort Benning, GA, using Soldiers from the Officer Candidate School (OCS) as participants. The employment techniques contrasted stationary bounding operation with operation of the robot while the Soldier was on the move. The two display types were a handheld display (HHD) and a helmet mounted display (HMD). Results indicated that Soldiers performed better with the HHD than they did with the HMD used in this experiment. Their course completion times, driving errors, and the number of times they drove off course were all lower with the HHD. The Soldiers also preferred the HHD to the HMD and rated the workload with the HHD lower. With regard to technique, Soldiers preferred the bounding technique to the continuous movement technique. Fewer driving and off course errors were made and more items were detected with the bounding technique. Finally, until robots become more autonomous in their navigation, robotic control during Soldier movement is beyond the multitasking ability of most Soldiers.

We conducted a speech-based robotic control study using 29 Soldiers recruited from Fort Benning, GA. Findings indicated Soldiers were able to perform a secondary task (writing numbers) significantly faster when operating a robot using speech control versus using manual control. This demonstrated that robotic control requires multitasking and also implies that speech control requires less attention than manual control, thus freeing up cognitive resources for additional tasks. Speech control allowed significantly faster performance when the task involved using menu items (enlarge picture, shrink picture). Speech control allowed direct access to the menu items, whereas manual control required navigating through a menu and selecting an item two levels deep into the menu. Speech control was also significantly faster for labeling items where Soldiers had to choose and select from a list to label a picture. Alternatively, speech control took significantly longer when performing continuous tasks, such as turning the robot during the "take a picture" task and driving to the blue waypoint, which involved a significant amount of turning. When interpreting the results, one should consider that the intuition and speech-control portions of the experiment featured tasks that could be found in a robotic reconnaissance mission and the findings are specific to these tasks.

This is the third in a series of experiments designed to investigate how best to scale robot controls and displays for dismounted Soldiers who need smaller and lighter devices. This study investigates the impact of three types of navigation map displays on navigation performance, using Soldiers from the Officer Candidate School (OCS) at Fort Benning, GA. After training to use the TALON Robot system, each Soldier completed navigation exercises using three navigation display configurations: a 6.5 in. split screen display with a driving display on top and a map display on bottom, allowing simultaneous or near simultaneous viewing; a 3.5 in. display in which the Soldier could toggle between the driving and map displays; and a multimodal 3.5 in. display using a tactile belt that transmitted directional information to the Soldier concurrently with the driving camera display (Soldiers could also toggle to the map display to determine TALON's specific location). The terrain, targets, and hazards were counterbalanced to control for the effect of learning. Display configuration and usability for robotic driving were evaluated based on objective performance data, data collector observations, and Soldier questionnaires. Findings indicated that Soldiers navigated equally effectively using the multimodal 3.5 in. and 6.5 in. split screen displays. Their performance with both the multimodal and split screen displays was better than with the 3.5 in. display that required toggling between the driving and map displays.

This study, conducted at Fort Benning, Georgia, was an operational investigation of tele-operation control performance with the use of three different robotic control devices. Twelve Soldiers from the Officers Candidate School and three Soldiers from Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 11th Infantry Regiment served as participants. Before any training, Soldiers provided an initial evaluation of the intuitiveness of controller features. After training in the operation of the IRobot PackBot Robot system, each Soldier completed a driving course using three different controller types. Controller A was the largest of the three controllers and each control manipulation had a single function. Both controller A and controller B had a similar number of single-function controls; however, controller B's controls were laid in a different configuration and were smaller than controller A's. Controller C had the fewest controls and the controls were multi-functional. Soldiers were tasked to drive the robot and to perform operations such as surveillance using the robotic arm. We measured workload for each controller was measured by having the Soldiers complete the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Task Load Index survey after they used each controller type. type and usability were evaluated, based on objective performance data, data collector observations, and Soldier questionnaires. The multifunctional controller was reported to be more difficult to learn and use than the controller with reduced control sizes because switching between functions was time consuming and confusing. This difficulty increased perceived workload. Soldiers also found that several robotic control functions (e.g., raising the control arm while turning the sensor head) could not be performed simultaneously with the multifunction controller. Findings indicate that reducing the size of the individual controls shows promise as a valid approach.

This report is a consolidated description of past work performed to develop the University of Central Florida's tactile belt display system and to evaluate its potential for use as a covert means of communication to the individual warfighter. Previously, the results from these evaluations were distributed as technical reports, meeting presentations, and live demonstrations spanning the past several years. This report documents the full body of work and combines it into one document. Researchers expected the use of tactile displays to reduce demands on and interference with the Soldiers overtaxed visual and auditory channels, thereby improving overall performance capacity and mission readiness. As part of the development process, tactile system characteristics were reviewed and assessed to ensure system effectiveness. Several studies were performed to determine optimal system characteristics. After an effective system was developed, it was evaluated for military applications such as covert communication and target cueing in realistic mission context. This report contains these studies and documents the tactile belt display system's effect on Soldier performance.

The purpose of this report is to describe the development of a framework to enable classification, evaluation, and comparison of multimodal display research, based on task demands, display characteristics, research design, and individual differences. In this report, we describe the process by which a bibliographic database was developed and organized. First, the framework was specified, which then guided the identification and review of research and theory-based articles that were included in the bibliography. The results of the overall effort, the multimodal framework and article tracking sheet, bibliographic database, and searchable multimodal database make substantial and valuable contributions to the accumulation and interpretation of multimodal research. References collected in this effort are listed in the appendix.

Throughout experiments investigating the utility of tactile displays, tactors with varying engineering specifications have been used. Some of these tactors may have been more effective than others in terms of the ability of the wearer to localize the position of the individual tactors and to feel the tactile stimulation during dynamic situations. This study compared Soldiers' abilities to localize three different configurations of tactors: an inertial shaker motor and a C-2 vibro-tactile transducer that was set at two different intensities. The correct signal detection and localization rates were fairly high for all three systems during static trials, ranging from 86.1% to 91.8% correct, and there were no significant differences among the three systems in terms of signal detection and localization in this event. The ability to correctly identify tactor location was degraded during the dynamic event, and differences among the three systems emerged. On the individual movement techniques course, tactor localization was best with the higher intensity C-2 vibrotactile transducer (78.7%) and worst with the inertial shaker motor (48.8%). Localization was best when the Soldier was moving upright or in a kneeling firing position, and localization was degraded when the Soldier's torso was in contact with the ground or when he was climbing an obstacle. Differences were also found in localization rates at different positions around the waist. Tactor location detections were highest at the front of the body and lowest at the sides.

This report addresses the fitness of using icon-based systems to support decision making within a domain where the quality and reliability of the information are dynamically changing. Specifically, the study examined the use of iconic and non-iconic display forms to communicate information fidelity levels to decision makers for the purpose of supporting land navigation judgments. The results indicated that graphic and animated icons, as well as traditional digital display formats, produced accurate navigation judgments when information fidelity was high. In contrast, graphic and animated icon formats produced highest performance when information fidelity was moderate and/or low. These results are evaluated in the context of creating useful iconic display principles that may be applied to complex and uncertain decision environments where the fidelity of the information used to make decisions is in flux.

This study compared a tactile land navigation system to two operational systems with visual information displays. Front end workload and task analyses identified land navigation as having high and conflicting workload. The tactile display was expected to ameliorate the high visual and cognitive workload per Multiple Resource Theory (Wickens, 2002). Fifteen infantry Soldiers navigated three equivalent 1800-meter routes using each of three systems: the personal tactile navigator (PTN) tactile system; the U.S. Army precision lightweight GPS (global positioning system) receiver (PLGR), which is a hand-held GPS with an alpha-numeric display; and the traditional compass system. Note: Each soldier traversed each lane with different navigation systems; we counterbalanced the order in which they used the systems and the lanes that were walked with each system in order to control for any effects attributable to order (such as fatigue) or to the lane itself. The PLGR system was predicted to enhance performance relative to the compass system because of reduced cognitive demands. The PTN system was predicted to enhance performance relative to both PLGR and compass systems because of reduced cognitive demand from more intuitive display (e.g., following direction of tactor) and off load from visual attention demand. Soldiers performed more quickly and accurately when using the PLGR and tactile systems, relative to a compass. However, there was no significant difference between GPS and tactile systems. This is likely because of the low need for focal visual attention during navigation in this experiment; there was not as much interference with the occasional use of a visual display. However, visual attention demand increases when there is an active search for enemy or reduced visual field (e.g., fog, darkness).

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of offsetting the sensors in digital night vision goggles (NVGs) (thermal and image intensification [I2] sensors) from the eye. In addition to the digital prototype goggles, an enhanced NVG (ENVG), which optically combined thermal and I2 capabilities, was used as a baseline device. The experiment was executed over a period of a week with five groups of Soldiers, each of which contained six Soldiers acting as participants. Soldiers received familiarization training about the two prototype night vision devices (NVDs) and the baseline device, and they were briefed at the start of each exercise to explain what was required of them during the event. The exercises included a wide range of infantry activities to enable comprehensive assessment of features. These included grid location exercises, individual movement techniques (IMT) course trials, cross-country woodland patrols, target laser trials, and aim light mounting trials. The experiment was conducted in October 2005 during hours of darkness at various sites in Fort Benning, Georgia. The prototypes did not perform as well as the baseline in this study on the dismounted tasks. Soldiers preferred the baseline overwhelmingly to either of the prototypes because with the baseline goggle, they could see terrain features much better for navigation and walking, for firing a laser at targets, and for performing close tasks than they could with the prototypes with the offset sensors. The prototype goggles caused the Soldiers to experience problems such as eyestrain and disorientation. It may be that the use of NVGs with offset sensors will cause Soldiers difficulty when they perform dismounted tasks. However, this conclusion cannot be stated categorically because the devices with offset sensors used in this study were prototypes and had other problems that could also have impacted their performance.

This chapter provides an overview of the Department of Defense (DoD) laboratory structure to help equipment designers, modelers, and manufacturers determine where research, testing programs, or relevant findings can be found. The chapter includes a discussion of the performance measures and metrics typically used in DoD laboratories and concludes by considering the current state-of-the-art as well as the state-of-the-possible for human performance measurement.

The U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Soldier and Biological Chemical Command-Natick Soldier Center, Natick, Massachusetts, developed a situational awareness (SA) assessment center (AC) for squad members, fire team leaders, and squad leaders at the McKenna military operations in urban terrain site, Fort Benning, Georgia. The AC was used to conduct a two-phase SA experiment. In Phase I, tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) for the intra-squad radio were evaluated with the goal of selecting the most effective TTP for the intra-squad radio in urban conditions such as those evaluated. Five Army Ranger squads conducted three mini-vignettes five times using different TTFs and a different script each time (a total of 75 trials). The vignettes were scripted (i.e., OpFor activity, platoon leader communication, etc.) and were of short duration to minimize the number of uncontrolled variables. In Phase II, the contribution of the intra-squad radio to the SA of the individual squad members was evaluated. The TTP selected from Phase I was incorporated into Phase II procedures for communications. Each squad conducted each of six different vignettes twice (once with and once without the intra- squad radios) and used a different script each time. The AC methodology content validity index was 0.99, had high face validity, and allowed successful discrimination among a variety of conditions (e.g., day and night, five different TTPs, radio and no radio, etc.). Critical informational requirements were identified by echelon for each of the vignettes. The use of the intra-squad radios significantly increased the SA of the squad.