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Using data from a panel of 23 Middle East and North African (MENA) economies over the years between 1999-2015, this paper examines the determinants of the shadow economy in this region. Specifically, we reexamine the economic and social variables used in the cross-country empirical literature on the shadow economy and compare them with those of the MENA economies to identify similarities and differences between MENA countries and the rest of the world. Moreover, we discuss key implications of the shadow economy in this setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we investigate the determinants of ticket prices in the Turkish aviation sector by mainly focusing on the role of competition using both cross-sectional and panel data approaches. Our results indicate that while the main determinant of the crosssectional variation in average ticket prices is the distance of route; the degree of competition, flight frequency and plane capacity have statistically significant relationships with daily ticket prices alongside the distance. However, the set of determinants depend on the location of flight destination. For routes with a domestic destination, our results indicate that price levels are negatively affected from the degree of competition, exchange rate and crude oil price. On the other hand, ticket prices for routes with international destinations are negatively and significantly relate to flight frequency and plane capacity while the degree of competition does not exhibit a statistically significant relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Investigates the relationship between informality and urbanization. [•] Finds an inverted-U relationship between informality and urbanization. [•] Aims to account for this inverted-U relationship using panel data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two novel datasets of the size of the informal economy and income inequality, this study provides evidence on the nexus of informality and inequality with particular attention to the feminization of labor, a phenomenon closely related to labor market informalization. Using annual cross-country panel data from 125 countries for 1963–2018, the study reveals a relationship between the size of the informal sector and income inequality, which is more likely to be negative in richer countries and positive in poor ones. It also shows that, while higher women's labor force participation is associated with lower income inequality, this negative correlation is cancelled by the presence of an informal sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has killed over a million people since its emergence in late 2019. However, there has been substantial variability in the policies and intensity of diagnostic efforts between countries. In this paper, we quantitatively evaluate the association between national contact tracing policies and case fatality rates of COVID-19 in 138 countries. Our regression analyses indicate that countries that implement comprehensive contact tracing have significantly lower case fatality rates. This association of contact tracing policy and case fatality rates is robust in our longitudinal regression models, even after controlling for the number of tests conducted and non-pharmaceutical control measures adopted by governments. Our results suggest that comprehensive contact tracing is instrumental not only to curtailing transmission but also to reducing case fatality rates. Contact tracing achieves the early detection and isolation of secondary cases which are particularly important given that the peak in infectiousness occurs during the presymptomatic phase. The early detection achieved by contact tracing accelerates the rate at which infected individuals receive medical care they need to maximize their chance of recovery. In addition, the combination of reduced transmission and more rapid recovery diminishes the burden on the healthcare system which in turn ensures that the resources remain available for individuals who do become infected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To identify the role of gender and other factors in influencing ophthalmologists' compensation. Cross-sectional study. U.S. practicing ophthalmologists. Between January and March 2020, an anonymous survey was sent to U.S. residency program directors and practicing ophthalmologists who recently completed residency training. Respondents who completed residency ≤ 10 years ago and responded to questions about gender, fellowship training, state of practice, and salary were included. Propensity score match (PSM) analysis was performed with age, academic residency, top residency, fellowship, state median wage, practice type, ethnicity, and number of workdays. Multivariate linear regression (MLR) analysis controlled for additional factors along with the aforementioned variables. Base starting salary with bonus (SWB) received in the first year of clinical position was the main outcome measure. A multiplier of 1.2 (20%) was added to the base salary to account for bonus. Of 684 respondents, 384 (56% were female, 44% were male) from 68 programs were included. Female ophthalmologists received a mean initial SWB that was $33 139.80 less than that of their male colleagues (12.5%, P = 0.00). The PSM analysis showed an SWB difference of −$27 273.89 (10.3% gap, P = 0.0015). Additionally, SWB differences were calculated with the number of workdays substituted by operating room (OR) days (−$27 793.67 [10.5% gap, P = 0.0013]) and clinic days (−$23 597.57 [8.90% gap, P = 0.0064]) in separate PSM analyses. The SWB differences between genders were significant using MLR analyses, which also controlled for work, clinic, and OR days separately (−$22 261.49, $−18 604.65, and $−16 191.26, respectively; P = 0.017, P = 0.015, P = 0.002, respectively). Gender independently predicted income in all 3 analyses (P < 0.05). Although an association between gender and the attempt to negotiate was not detected, a greater portion of men subjectively reported success in negotiation (P = 0.03). Female ophthalmologists earn significantly less than their male colleagues in the first year of clinical practice. Salary differences persist after controlling for demographic, educational, and practice type variables with MLR and PSM analyses. These income differences may lead to a substantial loss of accumulated earnings over an individual's career. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]