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Oxidized single walled carbon nanohorns (ox-SWCNH) were electrodeposited onto gold microelectrode arrays in conjunction with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and polystirenesulfonate (PSS), and the properties of the new composite material for neural recording and stimulation were assessed. PEDOT/ox-SWCNH composites were compared with films prepared with one of the most notorious carbonaceous material in this field, the oxidized multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes (ox-MWCNT). The PEDOT/ox-SWCNH exhibited superior charge transfer capability, reflecting greater electroactive surface, as confirmed by SEM and EIS characterizations. As a consequence, a charge injection limit of 11.6mC/cm⁠2 was observed for the new composite, which is higher than the one of PEDOT/ox-MWCNT (8.7mC/cm⁠2). Having confirmed comparable neural recording performance, the PEDOT/ ox-SWCNH composite results very promising for improving therapeutic electrical stimulation in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Flexible neural implants are extremely favored, as the most successful strategy to promote probe-tissue integration and avoid severe gliosis relies on reducing the mechanical mismatch between probe and brain tissue. But what are the realistic requirements for achieving chronic recording stability? What are the critical dimensions and main factors determining glial scar-free device integration? To answer these questions, two types of hair-sized polyimide-based flexible intracortical (PIXI) arrays were fabricated, differing only in their cross-sectional area. Chronic tissue reaction to both types was evaluated in rats, and in different implantation setups. Interfacial stresses were found to play a critical role in long-term tissue integration. Still, all the devices provided high quality chronic recordings of single units and inflammatory gene expression was not significantly upregulated for larger devices. Our study points out that the most relevant factor in eliciting FBR is played by mechanical probe-tissue interactions, that polyimide is well tolerated by the tissue, and that a holistic design - considering material properties, geometrical dimensions and assembling techniques - is the key towards longevity and long-term performance of intracortical probes. The optimization of only one parameter did not yet lead to the successful translation of research accomplishments into chronic preclinical and clinical applications.

Recent technological advances show the feasibility of offline decoding speech from neuronal signals, paving the way to the development of chronically implanted speech brain computer interfaces (sBCI). Two key steps that still need to be addressed for the online deployment of sBCI are, on the one hand, the definition of relevant design parameters of the recording arrays, on the other hand, the identification of robust physiological markers of the patient’s intention to speak, which can be used to online trigger the decoding process. To address these issues, we acutely recorded speech-related signals from the frontal cortex of two human patients undergoing awake neurosurgery for brain tumors using three different micro-electrocorticographic ([Formula: see text]ECoG) devices. First, we observed that, at the smallest investigated pitch (600[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]m), neighboring channels are highly correlated, suggesting that more closely spaced electrodes would provide some redundant information. Second, we trained a classifier to recognize speech-related motor preparation from high-gamma oscillations (70–150[Formula: see text]Hz), demonstrating that these neuronal signals can be used to reliably predict speech onset. Notably, our model generalized both across subjects and recording devices showing the robustness of its performance. These findings provide crucial information for the design of future online sBCI.

El articulo propone una metodologia para medir los viajes diarios asociados con las tareas del cuidado, entendidas estas como las actividades llevadas a cabo por adultos para el cuidado de menores y otras personas dependientes y el mantenimiento del hogar. Estas tareas son estadisticamente llevadas a cabo por mujeres, en la mayoria de los casos como trabajo no remunerado. Los viajes asociados a estas tareas no estan descritos de manera apropiada en la literatura, y aun menos considerados en las politicas de transporte. Hemos construido una metodologia para medir este tipo de viajes alrededor del concepto innovador “movilidad del cuidado” acunado por Ines Sanchez de Madariaga en el ano 2009. Este concepto define una nueva categoria para las encuestas de transporte que considera la dimension de genero en la movilidad urbana. Este articulo presenta un estudio empirico que aplica esta metodologia para analizar la movilidad diaria de mujeres y hombres entre 30 y 45 anos en el area metropolitana de Madrid.

Structural biocompatibility is a fundamental requirement for chronically stable bioelectronic devices. Newest neurotechnologies are increasingly focused on minimizing the foreign body response through the development of devices that match the mechanical properties of the implanted tissue and mimic its surface composition, often compromising on their robustness. In this study, an analytical approach is proposed to determine the threshold of conformability for polyimide-based electrocorticography devices. A finite element model was used to quantify the depression of the cortex following the application of devices mechanically above or below conformability threshold. Findings were validated in vivo on rat animal models. Impedance measurements were performed for 40 days after implantation to monitor the status of the biotic/abiotic interface with both conformable and non-conformable implants. Multi-unit activity was then recorded for 12 weeks after implantation using the most compliant device type. It can therefore be concluded that conformability is an essential prerequisite for steady and reliable implants which does not only depend on the Young's modulus of the device material: it strongly relies on the relation between tissue curvature at the implantation site and corresponding device's thickness and geometry, which eventually define the moment of inertia and the interactions at the material-tissue interface.

Microelectrode arrays are used for recording and stimulation in neurosciences both in vitro and in vivo. The electrodeposition of conductive polymers, such as poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT), is widely adopted to improve both the in vivo recording and the charge injection limit of metallic microelectrodes. The workhorse of conductive polymers in the neurosciences is PEDOT:PSS, where PSS represents polystyrene-sulfonate. In this paper, the counterion is the fluorinated polymer Nafion, so the composite PEDOT:Nafion is deposited onto a flexible neural microelectrode array. PEDOT:Nafion coated electrodes exhibit comparable in vivo recording capability to the reference PEDOT:PSS, providing a large signal-to-noise ratio in a murine animal model. Importantly, PEDOT:Nafion exhibits a minimized polarization during electrical stimulation, thereby resulting in an improved charge injection limit equal to 4.4 mC cm-2 , almost 80% larger than the 2.5 mC cm-2 that is observed for PEDOT:PSS.

This chapter proposes a methodology for accurately measuring daily travel associated with care tasks: activities performed by adults for children and other dependants, and the maintenance of the home. These activities are statistically performed by women, often as unpaid work. The travel associated with these tasks is not well described in the transport literature and is still less considered by transport policy agendas. We build the methodological framework for measuring this kind of travel around the innovative concept of mobility of care (Sanchez de Madariaga, Transporte metropolitano y grupos sociales: propuestas para una mejor planificacion. Madrid: Ministry of Infrastructure, 2009, Schiebinger et al. Gender innovations in science, health and medicine, engineering and environment (launched 2011: genderinnovations.stanford.edu), 2013), which provides an umbrella category for the design of transport statistics that takes into account gender dimensions in urban transport. The chapter further provides an empirical study that applies this methodology to analyse the daily mobility of women and men aged 30–45 years in the metropolitan region of Madrid.

Two big trends are leading the way to a new generation of thin-film electrocorticography (ECoG) micro electrode arrays (MEAs): miniaturization, which combines higher electrode densities with thinner substrates for conformability purposes; and the pursuit to extend the recording frequency band to 1 kHz and beyond (recording of spikes). When combining these two trends, however, the frequency-dependent phenomenon of crosstalk emerges as a possible setback to the so desired spatial selectivity. In this work, high in vivo coherences at 1 kHz be-tween electrodes with neighboring tracks are reported when using the MuSA (Multi-Species Array) as recording ECoG MEA on rats. These results suggest a high degree of crosstalk between closely routed electrodes, even if placed far apart on the array, and are corroborated by coherence plots of control recordings in vitro in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). As means to estimate the combined leakage resistance and capacitance between the signal lines and the targeted brain tissue, an impedance spatial sweep over the 32 tracks routing the MuSA electrodes is performed in PBS in a two-electrode electrochemical impedance spectroscopy setup. This study should raise awareness of crosstalk as an important aspect to consider when aiming for high-quality, high-density and high-frequency neural recordings.

Glassy carbon (GC) has high potential to serve as a biomaterial in neural applications because it is biocompatible, electrochemically inert and can be incorporated in polyimide-based implantable devices. Miniaturization and applicability of GC is, however, thought to be partially limited by its electrical conductivity. For this study, ultra-conformable polyimide-based electrocorticography (ECoG) devices with different-diameter GC electrodes were fabricated and tested in vitro and in rat models. For achieving conformability to the rat brain, polyimide was patterned in a finger-like shape and its thickness was set to 8 &micro, m. To investigate different electrode sizes, each ECoG device was assigned electrodes with diameters of 50, 100, 200 and 300 &micro, m. They were electrochemically characterized and subjected to 10 million biphasic pulses&mdash, for achieving a steady-state&mdash, and to X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, for examining their elemental composition. The electrodes were then implanted epidurally to evaluate the ability of each diameter to detect neural activity. Results show that their performance at low frequencies (up to 300 Hz) depends on the distance from the signal source rather than on the electrode diameter, while at high frequencies (above 200 Hz) small electrodes have higher background noises than large ones, unless they are coated with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS).

Polymer‐derived carbon can serve as an electrode material in multimodal neural stimulation, recording, and neurotransmitter sensing platforms. The primary challenge in its applicability in implantable, flexible neural devices is its characteristic mechanical hardness that renders it difficult to fabricate the entire device using only carbon. A microfabrication technique is introduced for patterning flexible, cloth‐like, polymer‐derived carbon fiber (CF) mats embedded in polyimide (PI), via selective reactive ion etching. This scalable, monolithic manufacturing method eliminates any joints or metal interconnects and creates electrocorticography electrode arrays based on a single CF mat. The batch‐fabricated CF/PI composite structures, with critical dimension of 12.5 µm, are tested for their mechanical, electrical, and electrochemical stability, as well as to chemicals that mimic acute postsurgery inflammatory reactions. Their recording performance is validated in rat models. Reported CF patterning process can benefit various carbon microdevices that are expected to feature flexibility, material stability, and biocompatibility.

Micro-electrode arrays for electrocorticography (ECoG) represent the best compromise between invasiveness and signal quality, as they are surface devices that still allow high sensitivity recordings. In this work, an assessment of different technical aspects determining the ultimate performance of ultra-conformable polyimide-based μECoG arrays is conducted via a finite element model, impedance spectroscopy measurements and recordings of sensorimotor evoked potentials (SEPs) in rats. The finite element model proves that conformability of thin-film arrays can be achieved with polyimide, a non-stretchable material, by adjusting its thickness according to the curvature of the targeted anatomical area. From the electrochemical characterization of the devices, intrinsic thermal noise of platinum and gold electrodes is estimated to be 3-5 μV. Results show that electrode size and in vitro impedance do not influence the amplitude of the recorded SEPs. However, the use of a reference on-skull (a metal screw), as compared to reference on-array (a metal electrode surrounding the recording area), provides higher-amplitude SEPs. Additionally, the incorporation of a grounded metal shield in the thin-film devices limits crosstalk between tracks and does not compromise the recording capabilities of the arrays.

Thin-film neural devices are an appealing alternative to traditional implants, although their chronic stability remains matter of investigation. In this study, a chronically stable class of thin-film devices for electrocorticography is manufactured incorporating silicon carbide and diamond-like carbon as adhesion promoters between glassy carbon (GC) electrodes and polyimide and between GC and platinum traces. The devices are aged in three solutions—phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), 30 × 10−3 and 150 × 10−3m H2O2/PBS—and stressed using cyclic voltammetry (2500 cycles) and 20 million biphasic pulses. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and image analysis are performed to detect eventual changes of the electrodes morphology. Results demonstrate that the devices are able to undergo chemically induced oxidative stress and electrical stimulation without failing but actually improving their electrical performance until a steady state is reached. Additionally, cell viability tests are carried out to verify the noncytotoxicity of the materials, before chronically implanting them into rat models. The behavior of the GC electrodes in vivo is monitored through EIS and sensorimotor evoked potential recordings which confirm that, with GC being activated, impedance lowers and quality of recorded signal improves. Histological analysis of the brain tissue is performed and shows no sign of severe immune reaction to the implant.

In this study, we present a 4-channel intracortical glassy carbon (GC) microelectrode array on a flexible substrate for the simultaneous in vivo neural activity recording and dopamine (DA) concentration measurement at four different brain locations (220μm vertical spacing). The ability of GC microelectrodes to detect DA was firstly assessed in vitro in phosphate-buffered saline solution and then validated in vivo measuring spontaneous DA concentration in the Striatum of European Starling songbird through fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). The capability of GC microelectrode arrays and commercial penetrating metal microelectrode arrays to record neural activity from the Caudomedial Neostriatum of European starling songbird was compared. Preliminary results demonstrated the ability of GC microelectrodes in detecting neurotransmitters release and recording neural activity in vivo. GC microelectrodes array may, therefore, offer a new opportunity to understand the intimate relations linking electrophysiological parameters with neurotransmitters release.

We report on a novel technology for microfabricating 3D origami-styled micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) structures with glassy carbon (GC) features and a supporting polymer substrate. GC MEMS devices that open to form 3D microstructures are microfabricated from GC patterns that are made through pyrolysis of polymer precursors on high-temperature resisting substrates like silicon or quartz and then transferring the patterned devices to a flexible substrate like polyimide followed by deposition of an insulation layer. The devices on flexible substrate are then folded into 3D form in an origami-fashion. These 3D MEMS devices have tunable mechanical properties that are achieved by selectively varying the thickness of the polymeric substrate and insulation layers at any desired location. This technology opens new possibilities by enabling microfabrication of a variety of 3D GC MEMS structures suited to applications ranging from biochemical sensing to implantable microelectrode arrays. As a demonstration of the technology, a neural signal recording microelectrode array platform that integrates both surface (cortical) and depth (intracortical) GC microelectrodes onto a single flexible thin-film device is introduced. When the device is unfurled, a pre-shaped shank of polyimide automatically comes off the substrate and forms the penetrating part of the device in a 3D fashion. With the advantage of being highly reproducible and batch-fabricated, the device introduced here allows for simultaneous recording of electrophysiological signals from both the brain surface (electrocorticography—ECoG) and depth (single neuron). Our device, therefore, has the potential to elucidate the roles of underlying neurons on the different components of µECoG signals. For in vivo validation of the design capabilities, the recording sites are coated with a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)—polystyrene sulfonate—carbon nanotube composite, to improve the electrical conductivity of the electrodes and consequently the quality of the recorded signals. Results show that both µECoG and intracortical arrays were able to acquire neural signals with high-sensitivity that increased with depth, thereby verifying the device functionality.

Long-term stability of neural interfaces is a challenge that has still to be overcome. In this study, we manufactured a highly stable multi-layer thin-film class of carbon-based devices for electrocorticography (ECoG) incorporating silicon carbide (SiC) and amorphous carbon (DLC) as adhesion promoters between glassy carbon (GC) electrodes and polyimide (PI) substrate and between PI and platinum (Pt) traces. We aged the thin-film electrodes in 30 mM H 2 O 2 at 39 °C for one week - to mimic the effects of post-surgery inflammatory reaction - and subsequently stressed them with 2500 CV cycles. We additionally performed stability tests stimulating the electrodes with 15 million biphasic pulses. Finally, we implanted the electrodes for 6 weeks into rat models and optically characterized the explanted devices. Results show that the fabricated ECoG devices were able to withstand the in vitro and in vivo tests without significant change in impedance and morphology.

We report on the superior electrochemical properties, in-vivo performance and long term stability under electrical stimulation of a new electrode material fabricated from lithographically patterned glassy carbon. For a direct comparison with conventional metal electrodes, similar ultra-flexible, micro-electrocorticography (μ-ECoG) arrays with platinum (Pt) or glassy carbon (GC) electrodes were manufactured. The GC microelectrodes have more than 70% wider electrochemical window and 70% higher CTC (charge transfer capacity) than Pt microelectrodes of similar geometry. Moreover, we demonstrate that the GC microelectrodes can withstand at least 5 million pulses at 0.45 mC/cm2 charge density with less than 7.5% impedance change, while the Pt microelectrodes delaminated after 1 million pulses. Additionally, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT-PSS) was selectively electrodeposited on both sets of devices to specifically reduce their impedances for smaller diameters (in-vitro cell viability experiments, while acute in vivo characterization was performed in rats and showed that GC microelectrode arrays recorded somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) with an almost twice SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) when compared to the Pt ones.

The long-term reliability of neural interfaces and stability of high-quality recordings are still unsolved issues in neuroscience research. High surface area PEDOT-PSS-CNT composites are able to greatly improve the performance of recording and stimulation for traditional intracortical metal microelectrodes by decreasing their impedance and increasing their charge transfer capability. This enhancement significantly reduces the size of the implantable device though preserving excellent electrical performances. On the other hand, the presence of nanomaterials often rises concerns regarding possible health hazards, especially when considering a clinical application of the devices. For this reason, we decided to explore the problem from a new perspective by designing and testing an innovative device based on nanostructured microspheres grown on a thin tether, integrating PEDOT-PSS-CNT nanocomposites with a soft synthetic permanent biocompatible hydrogel. The pHEMA hydrogel preserves the electrochemical performance and high quality recording ability of PEDOT-PSS-CNT coated devices, reduces the mechanical mismatch between soft brain tissue and stiff devices and also avoids direct contact between the neural tissue and the nanocomposite, by acting as a biocompatible protective barrier against potential nanomaterial detachment. Moreover, the spherical shape of the electrode together with the surface area increase provided by the nanocomposite deposited on it, maximize the electrical contact and may improve recording stability over time. These results have a good potential to contribute to fulfill the grand challenge of obtaining stable neural interfaces for long-term applications.