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Engagement with online media among learners is closely linked to language proficiency and cultural comprehension, offering a platform for enhancing English language skills. This has given rise to the field of online informal learning of English (OILE), with numerous studies exploring learners' habits in this domain and indicating positive impacts on language proficiency. However, disparities in OILE engagement exist among learners, with individual factors like motivation and attitude playing a role. Recent research has affirmed the positive correlation between learners' motivation, global outlook, and their involvement in informal learning. Yet, the connection between motivation and OILE remains insufficiently explored. This mixed-methods study, conducted with female university students in Saudi Arabia, utilized a questionnaire (n = 550) and subsequent semi-structured interviews (n = 19) to scrutinize students' motivations, International Posture (IP), and frequency of OILE use within the framework of the L2 Motivational Self System. The investigation aimed to elucidate how students' motivation and global outlook influence their OILE practices. Results indicated that participants were moderate OILE users with a relatively restricted global outlook, displaying diverse levels of motivation. Moreover, participants' engagement with OILE was notably shaped by their Ideal L2 selves and IP. The findings propose that participants perceived OILE as a means to connect with the international English-speaking community. Pedagogically, the study advocates for educating learners about the potential advantages of OILE use and emphasizes the need for institutions in this context to cultivate learners' International Posture.

Home-school communication is fundamental to parent involvement and student success. This essay and discussion article outlines the broad range of opportunities currently available for teachers to communicate with parents and associated strategies. The most frequent one-way modes of communication used with parents are discussed (websites, newsletters, email, texts, apps, report cards) as well as popular two-way interaction strategies (phone calls, home visits, parent-teacher conferences, virtual meetings). Key barriers to parent-teacher communication are also discussed, including racial stereotypes, language, teacher training, technology, and time, as well as the potential impact of a pandemic. Future directions for research in the area of school-home communication are also proposed. Ultimately, every communication exchange between teachers and parents occurs within the context of what has gone before and sets the stage for future interactions.

Background: The teachers in one sub-district in the North West province lacked technological knowledge and skills thus did not adopt a blended learning approach in their daily teaching. A partnership between the University of South Africa (Unisa) and schools in the district was forged to train teachers to acquire technological knowledge and skills. Objectives: To identify which online tools Unisa imparted to teachers, investigate how the acquired skills and knowledge helped teachers to adopt a blended learning approach and find out challenges that go with the application of technology. Method: Data were obtained through observation, one-on-one individual interviews and focus group discussions. Results: The Unisa training helped develop teachers' knowledge and skills in the use of TEAMS, Emails, WhatsApp, YouTube and the electronic content material. Teachers gave learners the electronic content (presentation slides and You-videos, question banks) for revision purposes. During the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) learners were given work to do while at home using WhatsApp. Conclusion: The article concludes by indicating that partnerships between schools and institutions of higher learning are a necessity to empower teachers on the use of technology which will lead to the use of a blended learning approach. Contribution: The article adds to the body of knowledge by indicating the need for retraining of teachers especially on technological skills to prepare them for 4th Industrial Revolution and meet the needs of the new cohort of learners-born after technology.

In the field of applied linguistics, Diane Larsen-Freeman is widely recognized, among her numerous contributions, as the originator of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). Over the years since her seminal publication (Larsen-Freeman, 1997), CDST has evolved into a meta-theory that guides the field's thinking on a variety of developmental phenomena, not least the study of second language acquisition. As its theoretical potency rises, so does the need to achieve a tangible understanding of CDST's core constructs. In this paper, we empirically examine one such construct, co-adaptation, in the context of asynchronous dyadic interaction. A data corpus of 39 emails sent between two college students in China and the United States over the course of seven weeks is analyzed using NVivo 12. Co-adaptation is observed at the pragmatic, discourse, and linguistic levels. True to the spirit of CDST, we describe, and discuss the nuances of, our findings. Considering the novelty of our approach to data analysis, we end by reflecting on the limitations specific to our study, as well as worthwhile directions for future pursuits.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is associated with university student academic success outcomes, however students often need support to develop these skills. Technology-mediated feedback is one strategy that may aid educators in supporting students' SRL development. This study aims to explore whether a technology-mediated feedback strategy targeting tutorial preparation for flipped classrooms enhances first-year students' self-report SRL and observed implementation of the strategy. Self-report SRL was measured using the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ); strategy implementation profiles were based on lecture video access patterns. First-year psychology students (n = 99) were sent technology-mediated feedback emails aimed at developing their SRL. Paired-samples t-tests revealed significant increases in post-intervention self-reported motivational SRL subscales; self-reported and observed learning strategies implementation did not improve. Future research could build upon this exploratory work to form a multi-pronged strategy to increase understanding of the role of technology-mediated feedback in first-year students' SRL development for flipped classroom learning.

The study examines a corpus of 306 request emails written by 32 English-speaking (ES) teachers and 121 L2 learners from distinctive L1 backgrounds (i.e., Chinese, French, Spanish) and with different levels of L2 proficiency. Pragmatic competence is analyzed through the coding of direct and indirect request strategies used in formal and informal email writing. Findings reveal the influences of communicative situation, L1 background, and L2 proficiency on pragmatic competence in email writing. First, L2 learners show a significantly lower degree of situational variability compared with ES teachers. Second, L1 backgrounds have a significant impact on L2 writing performance. Third, L2 learners with higher English proficiency tend to use more indirect request strategies, but they have not developed pragmatic competence to adjust their usage across written contexts. Findings are discussed in relation to pedagogical implications for developing writing competence of L2 learners, which should be attuned to diverse rhetorical expectations and individual needs.

Mastery-based assignments typically provide students with multiple opportunities to improve their performance, but getting students to take advantage of these opportunities is difficult. We report on the implementation of a two-part series of nudges designed to improve students' engagement with and performance on mastery-based assignments in high-enrollment, introductory undergraduate courses. Students received one or two email-based nudges for each assignment, providing both decision information and decision assistance. Delivered via email by a digital coaching system that provides tailored support to students, we evaluated the effectiveness of viewing versus not viewing these personalized nudges across introductory courses in mathematics, computer science and engineering over five terms at our large, research-intensive university. We used multilevel modelling with a sample of 30,693 assignment scores nested within 79 assignments and 5349 undergraduate students to explore the relationship between students' viewing the nudges and their scores while controlling for performance in other courses and students' baseline proclivities to read email from the coaching system. We find that viewing versus not viewing nudges is significantly related to improved outcomes. Viewing the first of the two-part nudge series is associated with a 3% increase in scores on average. Importantly, we found a significant interaction with prior academic performance such that students with the lowest average academic performance across all courses are predicted to benefit the most--up to 9%--from nudging. Positive impacts are observed in most courses where nudges were implemented and are found to be most impactful for later versus earlier assignments within a term. We discuss the implications of these results for supporting students' decision-making within mastery-based assignment schemes and suggest future research for tailored nudges to support student success.

Accomplishing a communication task in the real world requires the ability not only to do the task per se but also to manage aspects of the context in which it occurs. For this reason, simulations of target language use contexts have been incorporated into the design of communicative language tests as a way of enhancing the authenticity of assessment task performance. Although some contextual factors may increase extraneous cognitive load and distract learners from focusing on the task at hand (Sweller, 1994), they represent important design considerations in task-based language assessment (TBLA), where the purpose of assessment is to determine what second language (L2) learners can do with the target language in the real world. In that sense, the extraneous cognitive load might well be part of the construct we are interested in assessing. Accordingly, the current study simulated aspects of a real-world task performance context as part of an email writing task assessment. Simulated context was operationalized as (a) additional information about the task scenario, (b) a visual image to simulate the physical context, and (c) an audio to replicate the real-world experience. A total of 276 L2 English learners performed the email task, half with simulated context and the other half without it. Findings revealed that, when presented with simulated context, the tasks were perceived by participants to have induced more time pressure and to be more interesting. In terms of performance effects, the provision of simulated context negatively affected the syntactic complexity of participants' writing but positively affected their syntactic fluency. It also led to greater discrimination among learners at different proficiency levels on various measures of language performance. The paper concludes by highlighting implications for task design and validity evaluation, especially in TBLA.

Email has become a prominent communication tool for principals. Although principals have reported benefits of communicating via email, they have also indicated that it has intensified their workload. Specifically, principals have indicated that they receive a large volume of email, which contributes to extending and fragmenting their workdays. From actual email records, this study examined how email contributed to principal time demands and time use. Results indicated that the sample of principals received a substantial amount of email, which occurred during an extensive portion of the day, and also intensified during instructional hours. The comparisons of the timing of email activity revealed that principals experienced similar time demands from email, but used their time differently to address the demands. In addition, the email activities of principals exhibited descriptive differences from school district leaders. The findings indicated the need for more studies of principals' email activities and the time demands of principals, as well as suggested the need for principal preparation programs to provide specific training related to email and other such information technology.

First-generation (FG) college students (i.e., those for whom neither parent/guardian obtained a bachelor's degree) experience more barriers in college, compared with continuing-generation students. These barriers are compounded by subtle messages from instructors that convey the idea that natural talent is necessary for success in scientific fields. In contrast, growth mindset messages communicate that ability can improve with effort, help-seeking, and using productive study strategies. In a large enrollment introductory biology course, students were randomly assigned to receive email messages from their instructor after the first two exams containing either a growth mindset or control message. The intervention improved grades in the course for everyone, on average, compared with control messages, and were especially beneficial for FG students. This increase in performance was partially mediated by increased activity accessing course materials on the course website. This study provides preliminary evidence that instructors communicating growth mindset messages can support FG students' performance.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of performance-based feedback delivered via email on teacher candidates' implementation of a multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) preference assessment with an adult confederate. Six participants enrolled in a special education teacher preparation program were recruited to participate. After exposure to an introductory MSWO training video, participant fidelity of MSWO administration was measured. Following baseline, performance feedback was delivered via e-mail to each participant after the completion of each research session. Results indicate that performance feedback delivered via e-mail improved fidelity of implementation for all six participants. Implications and future directions are discussed.

The literature search underpins data collection for all systematic reviews (SRs). The SR reporting guideline PRISMA, and its extensions, aim to facilitate research transparency and reproducibility, and ultimately improve the quality of research, by instructing authors to provide specific research materials and data upon publication of the manuscript. Search strategies are one item of data that are explicitly included in PRISMA and the critical appraisal tool AMSTAR2. Yet some authors use search availability statements implying that the search strategies are available upon request instead of providing strategies up front. We sought out reviews with search availability statements, characterized them, and requested the search strategies from authors via email. Over half of the included reviews cited PRISMA but less than a third included any search strategies. After requesting the strategies via email as instructed, we received replies from 46% of authors, and eventually received at least one search strategy from 36% of authors. Requesting search strategies via email has a low chance of success. Ask and you might receive--but you probably will not. SRs that do not make search strategies available are low quality at best according to AMSTAR2; Journal editors can and should enforce the requirement for authors to include their search strategies alongside their SR manuscripts.

The current analysis aims to research the impact of ICT usage on students' achievement in the 2018 PISA assessment, specifically achievement in mathematics, science and reading scales. In this assessment, a total of 5,058 randomly selected students from 224 schools across Kosovo took part in the study. In addition, to the subscales assessing reading, mathematics and science achievement, participants also completed a variety of questionnaires developed by OECD to assess perceptions, socioeconomic factors and classroom/school contexts, among others. Current study analysis reveals the link between achievement and ICT usage among students, such as using computers for research, reading news, learning something new, and reading emails, among others. In a developing country where the achievement gap between students is increasing rapidly it is crucial to understand how access to resources hinders equity. Results indicate that access to the internet and computers at home links to higher achievement. However, Kosovar students tend to use technology and the internet mainly to chat with friends, and significantly less for learning something new or for doing homework. Gender differences are evident, with female students reporting a lower online presence. In conclusion, Kosovar students use computers and the internet mainly for entertainment and not for learning, which suggests that achievement cannot be attributed to ICT access and/or use.

Limited literacy has a large impact on the U.S. population; about half of adults lack sufficient literacy proficiency. However, not all populations are impacted equally, as there is a significant comorbidity between low literacy and mental illness. The authors have found that smartphones can offer mental health patients with low literacy numerous resources. They will highlight two examples in this article and describe how each can be beneficial to a patient's health. While these resources have great potential, the authors realize that not all patients are able to use their smartphones like this as they lack basic digital literacy. [For part 1 of this Forum on supporting mental health, see EJ1389837. For part 3, see EJ1389833.]

Prevalent security threats caused by human errors necessitate security education, training, and awareness (SETA) programs in organizations. Despite strong theoretical foundations in behavioral cybersecurity, field evidence on the effectiveness of SETA programs in mitigating actual threats is scarce. Since memory decay will inevitably occur after absorbing a broad range of cybersecurity knowledge in a single session, the effectiveness of SETA programs in longer terms is unclear. This study investigates whether and how knowledge gained through SETA programs can mitigate human errors in a longitudinal setting. In a baseline experiment, we established that SETA programs reduce phishing susceptibility by 50%, whereas the training intensity does not affect the susceptibility rate. In a follow-up experiment, we found that SETA programs can increase users' cybersecurity knowledge by 12-17%, but the increment wears off within a month. Furthermore, technical-level knowledge decays faster than application-level knowledge. The longer "shelf-life" of application-level knowledge explains why training intensity makes no difference in the baseline experiment. This study reveals a (relatively) more effective component of SETA programs and casts doubts on the overall effectiveness of SETA programs in the long run.

This study aims at exploring communication practices between students and supervisors in thesis projects. The study conducted a comparison between face-to-face and mediated communication through the use of emails. The researcher used the autobiographical reflection to document examples of information communicated during the two interactions. Furthermore, it utilized semi-structured interviews with three students who were conducting their thesis in the Information Studies Department at Kuwait University. Then, the researcher conducted interviews with four students' from other masters' programs. The study used a qualitative method to analyze the results. The findings showed that students used face-to-face meetings and mediated communication to seek different types of information. The topics discussed varied between the face-to-face and mediated interaction. Face-to-face communication was perceived as more effective and productive, while mediated communication was easier and faster. Students used e-mails to set appointments with their supervisors, ask questions and get feedback on assignments. Students faced some communication barriers such as difficulty of sense-making and experiencing the "black-hole" phenomenon. The study suggested applying an electronic supervision system to facilitate students' communication with their supervisors. This study has practical significance as it helps students and supervisors interact successfully during different thesis writing stages.

Misunderstandings about how the academic world operates are common among international students. This research investigated international students' understandings of academic regulations. Qualitative content analysis of 3,438 email messages indicate international students used a constellation of arguments to make academic requests/complaints to professors. They seemed to be unaware that their requests/complaints should be guided by the university's formal regulations. Analysis of requests/complaints showed that students perceive the academic environment to be governed by a complex set of informal understandings rather than being regulated by a straightforward set of institutional rules. International students' cultural transition process should be seen as a path from a complex constellation of arguments when making requests/complaints to a more limited set of behaviors governed by institutional regulations. Meeting the needs of international students is the responsibility of academic institutions. Curriculum re-design and a progressive learning strategy can play a central role in reducing complexity by communicating academic regulations clearly and consistently and by giving students pedagogical opportunities to develop the required skills.

Phishing is a common social engineering attack aimed to steal personal information. Universities attract phishing attacks because: (1) they store employees and students sensitive data; (2) they save confidential documents; and (3) their infrastructures often lack security. In this paper, we showcase a phishing assessment at the University of Redacted aimed to identify the people, and the features of such people, that are more susceptible to phishing attacks. We delivered phishing emails to 1.508 subjects in three separate batches, collecting a clickrate equal to 30%, 11% and 13%, respectively. We considered several features (i.e., age, gender, role, working/studying field, email template) in univariate and multivariate analyses and found that students are more susceptible to phishing attacks than professors or technical/administrative staff, and that emails designed through a spearphishing approach receive a highest clickrate. We believe this work provides the foundations for setting up an effective educational campaign to prevent phishing attacks not only at the University of Redacted, but in any other university

Providing timely nudges to students has been shown to improve engagement and persistence in tertiary education. However, many studies focus on small-scale pilots rather than institution-wide initiatives. This article assesses the impact of a pan-institution Early Alert System at the University of Canterbury that utilises nudging when students are at risk of disengagement. Once flagged, students received an automated text message and email encouraging reengagement with the learning management system. Students who received the nudge re-engaged at a higher rate and spent more time engaging with online material. These benefits were sustained over two weeks, demonstrating a measurable benefit over time. Unexpectedly, the nudge resulted in persistence and engagement in other enrolled courses where a nudge was not provided, showing the transferability of benefits to other courses. Although no significant differences in GPA were found between test and control groups, future development will enable further research.

Teaching with empathy is an approach that values the emotional quality of both teacher and student experiences. To incorporate teacher empathy into our teaching practice, we must first recognize that distress is inevitable, and that building skills to deal with stressful situations is an important investment in our future mental health. Communication skills such as listening, validating, and reframing are useful in the midst of student interactions. Designing a personal strategy to handle email communications is also essential, as much of our student communication occurs via this route. Having a short list of phone numbers and email addresses for campus emergency contacts, such as the dean of students or campus counseling center, is another important step in preparedness. Creating appropriate boundaries, stepping back, and taking time for self awareness all help to preserve teacher mental health. The overall goal is to position ourselves with the mental and emotional resources to interact with students in a manner that leads to successful student outcomes, and leaves us with a feeling of compassion satisfaction, rather than compassion fatigue.

Emoticons have become a common phenomenon in email correspondence between students and professors. Even though the use of emoticons in formal writing is considered inappropriate and unprofessional, more and more students are using these nonverbal communication tools to add context or emphasis to their email messages to professors. This paper examines the association between the use of emoticons and professors' perceptions of higher education students' email messages with and without emoticons in two countries, Serbia and Slovenia. The students' emails were collected and assessed on several levels. The students' messages were examined with particular attention to the appropriateness of the students' writing style. In addition, the students' level of digital literacy, their attitude toward a professor, and gender differences in the use of emoticons were examined. Furthermore, an online questionnaire was used to identify characteristic differences between students who use emoticons and students who do not. The results show that messages with emoticons are rated lower on several dimensions than messages without emoticons. In addition, students who use emoticons show lower digital literacy and perceive their professors as more understanding and helpful. Emoticon use is not related to gender. The results suggest that students should avoid using emoticons even if they have a positive attitude toward their professor.

Whilst the practitioner field around current student communications has developed in recent years, most published research still focuses either on prospective students, theoretical benefits of student communications or usage of individual channels of communication. This paper contributes to policy and practice by providing the first UK-wide look at current students' communications preferences and behaviours through a meta-analysis of 17 student communications surveys (total students surveyed 20,134). Results show that students expect their universities to utilise a range of channels (including email, social media and student portals) -- i.e. an integrated marketing theory approach. Most students feel that they receive the right level of information; however, overall satisfaction with communications has decreased in recent years. This paper provides recommendations for practice, as well as a template to improve consistency in future institutional student communications evaluations.

This study investigates email pragmatic instruction in four sets of international English textbooks. The prevalence of email communication in today's technology-mediated world necessitates its inclusion in second language classroom instruction. However, our analysis of the books reveals inadequate attention to the sociocultural aspects of email writing. The analysis also indicates limited opportunities for learners to notice form-function-context connections, engage in output practice, and reflect on their pragmatic performance. These findings underscore the gap between research recommendations and current teaching practices, highlighting the urgent need for textbook writers to integrate research findings for enhanced pragmatic instruction. The findings also provide recommendations for teaching email communication in the second language classroom.

This paper examines the effectiveness of providing personalised email feedback via an automated email application in a large undergraduate introductory accounting course. Over 1,200 students received feedback via emails sent weekly, semi-tailored to each student based on their results in online self-test learning quizzes. We first found that students read the majority of emails distributed. Second, through tracking, using regression analysis, we found that reading emails is related to significantly higher final examination performance in some cases. However, this is moderated by factors relating to diversity in a large cohort exceeding 1,000 students. The results indicate that feedback needs to be readily actionable and aligned with assessed learning outcomes to realise significant impacts on exam performance. This study is relevant to educators who teach large and diverse cohorts and need time-efficient solutions to tailor the learning experience to each student.

In times of decreasing response rates and survey participation, many 'best-practices' have been developed for increasing survey recruitment. However, most of these have never been adequately and experimentally scrutinized for their efficacy. Therefore, in this research note, we draw on probability-based data of an online panel and experimentally examine whether it is possible to increase survey participation behavior by communicating a deadline extension. Overall, our results show that it is possible to influence participation behavior by deadline communication. While overall response speed was significantly faster when a deadline extension was communicated, the overall response rate was slightly lower, compared to scenarios in which no deadline extension was communicated. Thus, we refrain from recommending a deadline extension unless there are specific reasons to do so.

Delivering bad news is an inevitable aspect of management. Teaching students to deliver bad news effectively and professionally can be successfully implemented into a course that addresses elements of managerial communication. In this article, we explain an experiential exercise that applies components of a three-phase model for delivering bad news. This exercise challenges students, working in groups, to plan and craft the text of an email message that delivers bad news and then to write a response to that message from the perspective of the participant. Students then analyze how other groups handled the same scenario. The exercise may fit with instruction about tone and word choice in written communication, especially as it relates to delivering bad news. The four-step exercise can be used in an undergraduate- or graduate-level course. Recommendations for adapting the exercise to the online environment are included.

This study explores English-dominant speakers' and English learners' knowledge of (in)formal stylistic variants, their choice of (in)formal styles in relation to social context, their preferences in the use of select (in)formal stylistic variants, and their beliefs about the influence of their other languages. Ten English-dominant undergraduates in Canada, 10 international English-as-a-second-language undergraduates in Canada, and 11 English-as-a-foreign-language undergraduates in Slovakia completed a questionnaire and composed 6 short e-mail messages, each embedded in a unique social context defined by the intended reader (ranging from completely unfamiliar to extremely familiar) and the communication purpose (ranging from completely transactional to completely interactional). Differences were found among the groups in their knowledge of (in)formal stylistic variants, their choice of style, their use of some (in)formal variants, and reported effects of their other languages. This study concludes that primarily classroom-instructed English learners who wish to learn how English-dominant speakers approach expression of formality would benefit from explicit instruction. It further concludes that more research is necessary to identify factors driving individual knowledge of (in)formal variants and preferences in their use, particularly in relation to overall communicative competence and the context of language acquisition and use.

The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted a renewed interest in intergenerational letter and email writing. Evidence shows that expressive writing, including letter writing, has a number of benefits including improved literacy and perceived well-being, and it can also facilitate a deep connection with another person. This scoping review provides an overview of the existing research on letter and email writing between different age cohorts. Of the 471 articles retrieved from Scopus, CINAHL, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Academic Search Premier, and Web of Science, 17 studies met the inclusion criteria and were critically appraised and synthesized in this review. The studies were grouped into two themes according to their stated aims and outcomes: (a) studies exploring changes in perceptions, and (b) studies relating to skills development and bonds. The results showed a range of benefits for intergenerational letter writers, from more positive perceptions of the other age group, through improved writing skills and subject knowledge, to forming intergenerational memories and bonds. The review also highlights some of the limitations of the current research and formulates recommendations for future studies in the fields of writing studies, intergenerational research, and educational gerontology.

Individual participant data meta-analyses (IPD-MAs) have several benefits over standard aggregate data meta-analyses, including the consideration of additional participants, follow-up time, and the joint consideration of study- and participant-level heterogeneity for improved diagnostic and prognostic model development and evaluation. However, IPD-MAs are resource-intensive and require careful budgeting of time from data contributing groups, a dedicated management team, diversity of expertise, clearly documented data sharing and authorship agreements, and consistent and clear communication. We present a toolkit to facilitate the implementation and management of IPD-MAs, from study recruitment to retrospective harmonization. The toolkit was developed and refined over our work on multiple multinational IPD-MA projects over the last 13 years. The toolkit's budget and email templates, agreements, project management spreadsheets, and standard operating procedures are meant to facilitate routine IPD-MA tasks to expedite implementing and managing future IPD-MA projects.

This research article examines the accuracy of using Google Translate as a means to offer native language, e-mail communication between teachers and parents of Latino English Language Learners (ELLs). To this end, an elementary teacher's e-mail message was translated by Google Translate and certified translators and then evaluated and compared according to fluency, adequacy, meaning, and severity as outlined in previous studies. A paired sample t-test yielded a significant difference in the evaluation scores of the Google translation (3.85) and the certified translation (4.86). The evaluators perceived the Google translation as roughly 75% accurate and documented errors related to literal translation, inconsistent register or formality, and overuse of punctuation. Regardless of the errors noted in the Google translation, the evaluators indicate that the translation maintained strong conveyance of meaning. These findings suggest that Google Translate may have limited feasibility for communicating with Spanish-speaking parents via e-mail, because it maintains a significant portion of meaning from the original English message. The article concludes with recommendations for future research.

Nowadays, email communication is considered the most common and widespread computer-based tool that students use to communicate with their professors. This paper provides a framework for evaluating email communication between students and professors and examines the factors that may influence students' email style and professionalism. The research was conducted among Serbian and Slovenian students who contacted their professors by email. In order to evaluate the style of student email communication, the degree of formality, and the layout, we developed an evaluation form. Students were asked to complete an online questionnaire that assessed their attitudes toward culture, attitudes toward their professor and studies, digital literacy, use of social media, and self-perceptions of their communication skills. Responses were analysed and structural equation modeling was used to test seven hypotheses predicting the effects of factors that influence writing style in emails. As expected, the results show several differences in these factors in the two countries. First, in both countries, students' perceptions of their own communication skills influence their email communication style. Second, grade point average has a significant effect on email communication in Serbia but not in Slovenia, while attitude toward the professor is a significant predictor of email communication in Slovenia but not in Serbia. Moreover, in both countries, attitude toward professor is influenced by attitude toward study. Third, digital literacy has a significant effect on students' perceived communication skills in both countries, while culture affects communication skills only in Slovenia and social media use only in Serbia.

Email etiquette is an important skill, especially in professional settings. Research demonstrates that undergraduate students follow email rules when given written instructions plus an example. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of computer-based email instruction on undergraduate students' email etiquette and to assess the social validity of that instruction. The email instruction package was delivered through an online learning management system and consisted of written instructions plus a model, a quiz, and quiz feedback. We measured email etiquette by scoring emails from course assignments using a checklist. The instruction package produced a replicated increase in mean email checklist scores across two sections of introductory psychology, and checklist scores were elevated when participants sent emails in a novel context. The results of the social-validity assessments suggest that the goals were important, the procedures were acceptable, and there were meaningful improvements in email etiquette for some participants.

The present study focuses on email communication in the multilingual university setting. Previous studies dealing with similar settings point to the lack of politeness markers in students' email messages [Bjorge, A. (2007). Power distance in English lingua franca email communication. "International Journal of Applied Linguistics", 17(1), 60-80], requests tend to be more direct and they may not match with the degree of imposition or social distance involved. Students' lack of netiquette and the lack of physical presence on the Internet may influence their pragmatic behaviour. In addition to that, other studies [Barón, J., & Ortega, M. (2018). Investigating age differences in e-mail pragmatic performance. "System", 78, 148-178] point to age effects and further confirm the preference for direct pragmatic forms. Nevertheless, very few studies have adopted a multilingual perspective. For this reason, we have examined 250 email requests to faculty. Openings and requests produced in Catalan, Spanish or English were analysed. Our main goal was to confirm whether students' requests would devoid politeness markers and whether openings would show a lack of netiquette. We were also interested in identifying age and gender effects and in finding out if the pragmatic forms chosen would be in line with the politeness orientation of the language involved. Results are in line with previous studies but they also contradict them adding interesting information on the way multilingualism is displayed in email interaction.

Young children with Down syndrome (DS) often demonstrate impaired oral vocabulary development; however, few intervention studies have focused on this population. One promising method to improve the oral vocabulary of young children with DS may be to train their parents to intervene at home. In this study, we used tele-education methods (e.g., videoconferences, email) to coach parents to implement an adapted version of Down Syndrome LanguagePlus (DSL+). Four children with DS (ages 5-6 years) participated in the multiple probe across behaviors (i.e., stories) single-case research design study. Increasing trends during baseline and data variability precluded confirmation of a functional relationship; however, results indicated that all participants increased their scores on mastery measures of targeted vocabulary. Three of the four parents implemented DSL+ with high fidelity and responded favorably to social validity interviews.

This study examines the effect of enhanced input of lexical chunks on the performance of Arabic-speaking English learners' writings. Lexical chunks, containing their forms, meanings, and functions, stored and recovered as a single component in brains, may alleviate language processing problems and increase language proficiency. The research examines if enhancing exposure to lexical chunks might advance foreign language learners' writing in Saudi Arabia. The study attempts to find an answer to the following question: What is the potential impact of rich input of lexical chunks on Arabic-speaking learners of English e-mail writing competence? A total of 34 female university students were divided into two groups and given a pre-test and post-test in which they wrote and composed e-mails in English. The experimental group was then exposed to a treatment (i.e., extensive exposure to lexical chunks available via an e-mail phrase bank). After eight weeks of treatment, the experimental group outperformed the control group on the posttreatment test. The results demonstrate that learners with more lexical chunks are more likely to perform better and vice versa. The results indicate that the experimental group had a favorable attitude about lexical chunks through the e-mail phrase bank. The results suggest that abundant input of lexical chunks aids in improving learners' writing performance. The findings also suggest that increased input of lexical chunks may lessen the potential negative transfer of the mother language, therefore refining writing in terms of collocations, grammatical structures, and discourse coherence.

The current paper examined the impact of Dynamic Assessment (DA) on the speaking skills of EFL learners applying socio-cultural theory, which was developed by Vygotsky (1934). The study also tried to compare the results from online synchronous DA sessions, which were done in the form of one-to-one online training over Google Meet, with the results from asynchronous DA sessions, in which the trainer and the trainees were interacting over Gmail. To this end, 90 EFL institutional students from Iran, who were getting ready to take the IELTS test, were selected as the participants of the program. The cases were then divided into two experimental groups and one control group, each with 30 contributors. IELTS speaking tasks, marked by IELTS speaking band descriptors, were used to assess their speaking skills. Comparing the pre-test and post-test, the findings indicated development in all four areas of fluency, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Moreover, comparing the results from the two experimental groups showed that the participants who received asynchronous DA sessions outperformed the other experimental group. It is worth mentioning that a broader level of development was observed in experimental groups than the control group, in which the members received synchronous non-Dynamic Assessment (non-DA) methods.

In today's learning society, use of media and technology affects students in all educational levels. There are a number of studies conducted among university students in this context. However, adolescents, who are sensitively exposed to the negative effects of the excessive use of media and technology, have been neglected. The aim of this study is to investigate the association among adolescents' use of media and technology, their academic procrastination behavior, and academic achievement. This study also examines the possible mediating effect of academic procrastination behavior on the relationship between adolescents' media and technology use and academic achievement. This quantitative study included data from 1278 middle and high school students. We collected data via a questionnaire comprising of the demographic information form, media and technology usage and attitude scale, and academic procrastination behavior scale as well as students' grade point averages to measure students' academic achievement. The results revealed that as media and technology usage increased, students' academic achievement decreased. In addition, academic procrastination behavior had a mediating effect on this relationship. In other words, adolescents' media and technology use cause academic procrastination behaviour to adversely affect their academic achievement. The implications for future research and the limitations of the study were also discussed.

In 2021, guidelines for early childhood education and care were released recommending children are provided access to outdoor areas during all free play sessions to reduce the risk of coronavirus disease of 2019 transmission, aligning with the existing recommendations to increase children's physical activity. There is a need to understand how to disseminate guidelines in this setting as dissemination is a prerequisite of adoption and implementation. This randomized controlled trial explored the impact of a video-based strategy to disseminate guidelines on family day care educators' intentions to adopt outdoor free play guidelines. Educators (N = 255) were randomized to receive a video (intervention) or text-based (usual care) resource via email describing recommendations. Educators were invited to participate in a post-intervention survey at 5-week follow-up assessing intentions to adopt guidelines. The secondary outcomes included knowledge, beliefs about capabilities, beliefs about consequences, social/professional role and identity, goals, implementation of guidelines, acceptability of resource and intervention reach. There was no statistically significant difference between groups in intentions to adopt guidelines [[Beta] = 0.01 (95% confidence interval -0.50 to 0.52), P = 0.97], nor for any secondary outcomes. Further investigation is needed to identify effective dissemination strategies in the family day care setting to increase the adoption of public health guidelines.