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Drying of foods is a processing step, which has a variety of outcomes from improving shelf life and product stability, to reducing weight, or to achieving a targeted product eating quality. Drying is key step in the manufacturing of some dried meat products, such as jerky. It is also a major event that occurs when beef is dry-aged, where beef is exposed to air under defined conditions for an extended aging period. Although the conditions typically used to produce dried meat products are significantly different from those that prevail during dry-aging, both involve a gradual removal of water from muscle. As there is a paucity of research on the kinetics of the dehydration process occurring during dry-aging of beef, this paper comprehensively reviews models used to describe drying kinetics in other beef products, in order to gain insights regarding the key factors that impact water removal from meat. Consideration is given as to how the specific conditions during dry-aging such as air flows used (approximately 2 m/s), high air relative humidity, low temperature, and meat geometry will influence the kinetics of the drying. With regard to modeling, equations derived from Fick's second law of diffusion (e.g., thin-layer models) have been used to describe the drying kinetics of small-sized meat products. However, to apply Fick's law to dry-aging, some different considerations may need to be evaluated such as: tridimensional geometry (i.e., whole muscle); uniform initial moisture content; isotropic diffusion; negligible shrinkage;and a combination of internal and external resistances.

Meat consumers are demanding products of higher and consistent quality, with a distinctive flavor and aroma, able to provide a particular sensorial experience when consuming beef. The impact of all the factors affecting the final eating quality, known as the farm to fork approach, has been extensively studied in the last decades. This includes genetic factors, production system, transport, carcass intervention, aging, packaging and cooking method, among others. Aging is, one of the most important steps in producing high quality tender beef. During this step, flavor is developed and the meat is tenderized. Dry-aging although considered a traditional method, is currently attracting attention from consumers, producers and researchers because of the characteristics of the final products in terms of flavor, aroma and texture. This chapter will describe the series of biochemical changes, which combined with the loss of water, generates a final product that is highly appreciated by niche consumers. This will include the changes that the muscle undergoes to be transformed to meat, the main factors driving the dry-aging process and how the flavor and aroma compounds are generated during this process.

Meat consumers are demanding products of higher and consistent quality, with a distinctive flavor and aroma, able to provide a particular sensorial experience when consuming beef. The impact of all the factors affecting the final eating quality, known as the farm to fork approach, has been extensively studied in the last decades. This includes genetic factors, production system, transport, carcass intervention, aging, packaging and cooking method, among others. Aging is, one of the most important steps in producing high quality tender beef. During this step, flavor is developed and the meat is tenderized. Dry-aging although considered a traditional method, is currently attracting attention from consumers, producers and researchers because of the characteristics of the final products in terms of flavor, aroma and texture. This chapter will describe the series of biochemical changes, which combined with the loss of water, generates a final product that is highly appreciated by niche consumers. This will include the changes that the muscle undergoes to be transformed to meat, the main factors driving the dry-aging process and how the flavor and aroma compounds are generated during this process.

Background Enteral nutrition delivery in the critically ill is frequently interrupted for surgical and airway procedures to avoid aspiration of stomach contents. Recurrent fasting leads to under delivery of enteral nutrition and this underfeeding is associated with worse outcomes. International fasting recommendations do not provide guidance for intubated patients receiving enteral nutrition. This study aimed to gain a detailed perspective of UK critical care fasting practices. Methods A web-based survey was sent to 232 UK intensive care units consisting of questions relating to fasting practices, presence of guidelines, average fasting times for common procedures and dietitian time per intensive care unit bed. Results A total of 176 intensive care units responded. Only 20% of units had guidelines and respondents stated that they were not consistently adhered to (mean compliance 66%). Units with greater dietetic involvement were more likely to have guidelines (p = 0.04). Fasting times were shorter for abdominal surgery (p = 0.002), non-abdominal surgery (p = 0.016) and radiology (p = 0.015) if a guideline was present. Fasting for extubation and tracheostomy was similar irrespective of the presence of a guideline. Considerable variation in fasting times was reported, usually due to inconsistencies in clinical decision-making. Conclusions This survey of national practice demonstrates that fasting times are varied and inconsistent, which may lead to under-delivery of enteral nutrition. More dietetic input was associated with increased likelihood of a fasting guideline.

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used in a sequential manner to optimize solubilization and precipitation conditions in the recovery of protein from bovine lung using pH shift.; Results: Separate D-optimal designs were employed for protein solubilization and precipitation. Independent variables investigated for protein solubilization were time (10-120 min), temperature (4-20 °C), pH (8.0-11.0) and solvent/sample ratio (2.5-10). Variables for protein precipitation were time (0-60 min) and pH (4.25-6.00). Soluble protein yields ranged from 323 to 649 g kg-1 and the quadratic model for protein solubilization revealed a coefficient of determination R2 of 0.9958. Optimal conditions for maximum protein solubility were extraction time 140 min, temperature 19 °C, pH 10.8 and solvent/sample ratio 13.02. Protein precipitation yields varied from 407 to 667 g kg-1 , giving a coefficient of determination R2 of 0.9335. Optimal conditions for maximum protein precipitation were pH 5.03 and 60 min. Based on the RSM model, solubilization conditions were manipulated to maximize protein solubilization under reduced water and alkaline usage. These conditions were also validated.; Conclusion: Models for solubilization and precipitation using bovine and porcine lung were validated; predicted and actual yields were in good agreement, showing cross-species applicability of the results. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.; © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

peer-reviewed Opportunities for exploiting the inherent value of protein-rich meat processing co-products, in the context of increased global demand for protein and for sustainable processing systems, are discussed. While direct consumption maybe the most profitable route for some, this approach is influenced greatly by local and cultural traditions. A more profitable and sustainable approach may be found in recognizing this readily available and under-utilised resource can provide high value components, such as proteins, with targeted high value functionality of relevance to a variety of sectors. Applications in food & beverages, petfood biomedical and nutrition arenas are discussed. Utilization of the raw material in its entirety is a necessary underlying principle in this approach to help maintain minimum waste generation. Understanding consumer attitudes to these products, in particular when used in food or beverage systems, is critical in optimizing commercialization strategies. This work forms part of the ReValueProtein Research Project (Grant Award No. 11/F/043) which is supported by the Irish Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM) and the Food Institutional Research Measure (FIRM) both funded by the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2007–2013. Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine

Blood is generated in very large volumes as a by-product in slaughterhouses all around the world. On the one hand, blood generation presents a serious environmental issue because of its high pollutant capacity; however, on the other hand, blood has the potential to be collected and processed to generate high-added-value food ingredients based on its exceptional nutritive value and its excellent functional properties. In this paper, we review the current state of the art for blood processing, from collection to final recovery of protein isolates, the functional properties of blood, impact of processing on functional properties, and potential applications as food ingredients. Furthermore, future challenges are outlined for this underutilized and abundant product from the meat industry.

Alkali solubilisation (ALS) was compared with acid solubilisation (ACS) for preparation of protein rich extracts from bovine and porcine hearts. ACS and ALS recovered 51.53%–55.74% of the total protein from bovine and porcine hearts. All extracts were rich in myofibrillar proteins with both treatments resulting in reductions in fat, collagen and cholesterol contents compared with starting materials. At 0% NaCl, ACS and ALS extracts had good gelling properties with the ALS gels having lower % cook loss. While treatments did not affect gel hardness, ACS extracts formed gel networks with higher storage modulus after heating and cooling. At 2% NaCl gel hardness, % cook loss and storage modulus values increased, with greater increases occurring for ACS extracts. The results show that ALS‐ and ACS‐based processes have potential to produce functional ingredients for processed meat products.

Beef processing produces high volumes of protein rich, low value, ‘waste’ co‐products such as offal. Beef improves uptake of low bioavailable non‐haem iron (found in vegetables, fortificants, supplements) and this effect is dubbed the ‘meat‐factor’, although the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we investigate whether bovine co‐products (kidney, lung, heart) not previously studied share this enhancing potential. This was determined by coupled in vitro digestion of co‐products and subsequent caco‐2 cell ferritin formation (an intracellular iron storage protein). In this study we show that bovine co‐products significantly increase caco‐2 cells’ response to non‐haem iron from infant rice cereal. The presence of these co‐products, (kidney, lung and heart), increased relative uptake (by 207.13%, 171.21%, 265.28%, respectively), to a greater extent than beef (30.23%). Our findings present a novel function for co‐products of beef processing that may have potential as food ingredients to improve non‐haem iron bioavailability, thus adding value.

The first woman to attend a Dutch university, Schurman studied ancient languages and theology. Her Latin treatise on the expedience of scholarship for women made this ‘Star of Utrecht’ the most famous female intellectual in seventeenth-century Europe. She was among the few women to publish views on Counter-Reformation controversies concerning predestination and transubstantiation. Her autobiography served as an apology for the Pietist sect, Labadism.

The only seventeenth-century woman to publish numerous books on natural philosophy, Cavendish presented her materialism in a wide range of literary forms. She abandoned her early commitment to Epicurean atomism and, rejecting the mechanical model of natural change, embraced an organicist materialism. She also addressed the relations that hold among philosophy, gender and literary genre.

Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine, exerted an influence on seventeenth-century Cartesianism via her correspondence with Descartes. She questioned his accounts of mind–body interaction and free will, and persuasively argued that certain facts of embodiment, the unlucky fate of loved ones, and the demands of the public good, constitute serious challenges to Descartes’ neo-Stoic view of the happy life of the autonomous will.

peer-reviewed Meat co-products are the non-meat components arising from meat processing/fabrication and are generated in large quantities on a daily basis. Co-products are considered as low added-value products, and in general it is difficult for industries to divert efforts into increasing their value. While many of these products can be edible those not used for human consumption or pet food is usually processed to be used as animal feed, fertilizer or fuel. However, to a large extent meat co-products are an excellent source of high nutritive value protein, minerals and vitamins and hence may be better diverted to contribute to alleviate the increasing global demand for protein. In this review the current uses, legislation and potential techniques for meat co-products processing are reviewed with the aim of showing a route to improve meat industry sustainability, profitability and better usage of available resources.

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) extends the shelf life of beef, especially in the context of visual colour. High O2 MAP (70–80%) may cause quality deterioration through lipid and protein oxidation, the latter linked to a reduction in meat tenderness. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of MAP in comparison to vacuum packaging (VP) on protein oxidation and subsequent tenderness of LD (M. longissimus dorsi) beef steaks during chilled storage (4 °C) of periods up to 14 days. Steaks were analysed for carbonyl content, free thiol groups, drip loss, Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) and SDS–PAGE of extracted myofibrillar proteins. Free thiol groups were lower in high O2 MAP (80% O2/20% CO2) steaks, after 14 days of storage, indicating protein oxidation compared to VP steaks. SDS–PAGE (non reducing conditions) showed the presence of high molecular weight cross linked myosin heavy chain aggregates in the high O2 atmosphere packaged steaks, which were absent in VP steaks.

The main objective was to investigate the angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE-I) inhibitory and antioxidant activities of sarcoplasmic proteins isolated from the brisket muscle (Pectoralis profundus) of 3 (Bos taurus) cattle and hydrolysed with papain for 24 h at 37°C. Sarcoplasmic protein hydrolysates were ultra-filtered using molecular weight cut off (MWCO) membranes and 10-kDa and 3-kDa filtrates were obtained. The total sarcoplasmic protein extracts and the 3-kDa filtrates were tested for angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory (ACE-I) activities. The total hydrolysates, 10-kDa and 3-kDa filtrates were also tested for their associated antioxidant activities using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity assay, the ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and the Fe(2+) metal chelating ability assay. The peptidic content of the total hydrolysates, the 10-kDa and the 3-kDa filtrates were analysed using an ORBITRAP mass spectrometer, and mass spectral data obtained were analysed using TurboSEQUEST. Eleven peptides were characterised from the total hydrolysates, fifteen from the 10-kDa filtrate fractions, whilst nine peptides were characterised from the 3-kDa filtrate fractions. Similarities between the amino acid sequences of the peptides identified in this study and previously identified antioxidant and ACE-I inhibitory peptides detailed in the BIOPEP database were outlined.

Bioactive peptides are short peptides approximately 2–30 amino acids in length. They are inactive within the sequence of the parent protein and can be released during gastrointestinal digestion, during food processing or by hydrolysis using commercial enzymes. Meat derived peptides have a myriad of bioactive potential including, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-thrombotic, ACE-I-inhibitory and cytomodulatory functions. Antioxidant and antimicrobial peptides isolated from meat muscle sources may be used as functional ingredient in food formulations to impart human health benefits and/or improve the shelf life of foods. This review collates information regarding peptidic hydrolysates with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties isolated from vertebrate and invertebrate muscle and by-products, identifying the sources, the isolation and characterisation techniques used, and the methods used to demonstrate these bioactivities in vitro.

This study evaluated the efficacy of injection with enhancement solutions containing sodium lactate (NaLac), potassium lactate (KLac), carrageenan, whey protein concentrate (WPC), yeast extract or fungal proteinases alone or in combination with NaCl at increasing the tenderness and cook yield of bovine M.supraspinatus and M. tricepsbrachii caput longum. Muscle sections (400g) were injected with enhancement solutions at an injection rate of 110% to give specific residual concentrations as follows: 0.5% NaCl; 2% NaLac; 2% KLac; 0.5% NaCl+1 or 2% NaLac; 0.5% NaCl+1% KLac; 0.5% NaCl+0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP)+2% NaLac; 0.5% NaCl+0.4% STPP, 1.5% WPC+/-0.5% NaCl, 1.0% carrageenan+/-0.5% NaCl, 0.5% yeast extract or 0.0005% and 0.001% fungal enzymes. Injection with solutions containing sodium or potassium lactates (alone or in combination with NaCl and STPP), WPC, carrageenan and yeast extract significantly (P0.05) decreased WBSF values and increased sensory tenderness ratings, compared to non-injected controls. All of these ingredients in water also significantly (P0.05) increased cook yield with the exception of yeast extract which had no significant effect. The fungal enzymes in a water carrier acted as effective tenderising agents in both muscles but when used at the higher level resulted in a significant decrease in percentage cook yield. Injection of the chuck muscles with these ingredients and water represents an effective method of improving their tenderness and in most cases also increasing percentage cook yield.

The aim was to investigate the effect of different cooking regimes on the cook yield and tenderness of non-injected and brine injected (0.5% residual NaCl) bovine M. triceps brachii caput longum (TB), M. supraspinatus (SP) and M. pectoralis profundus (PP). Injected and non-injected TB, SP and PP muscle sections (400 g) were (a) conventionally oven cooked to 72 degrees C or cooked slowly (using a Delta10 programme) to 72 degrees C or (b) cooked in a water bath to 72 degrees C or cooked in a water bath to 55 degrees C and held at this temperature for 2 h before heating to 72 degrees C. In addition, injected PP muscle sections were oven cooked to 69 degrees C and held at this temperature for up to 12 h. Slow cooking using a Delta10 programme had no significant (P

Hanging for 24 or 48 hours (h) of intact carcasses in the chill store cooler prior to further processing occurs periodically at processor level due to demand for product. The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of commercial carcass suspension (24 and 48 h) on meat tenderness attributes in modified atmosphere packed beef steaks during chill storage. A secondary objective was to investigate protein oxidation reactions occurring and the subsequent meat tenderness consequences. Carcasses were hung for 24 or 48 h in order to reproduce commercial short term storage of meat at processor level. Experimental gas atmospheres used in packs consisted of; 40%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% oxygen, with all packs containing 20% CO2 and the remainder being provided by the filler gas N2. Steaks from the 24 h suspended carcasses were tougher than those from 48 h suspended muscle. Additionally, packaging systems with high oxygen had a negative influence on tenderness (instrumental) and consumer determined juiciness in cooked beef steaks. The carbonyl content and TBARS numbers increased to the greatest extent in high oxygen packed samples. Protein oxidation was directionally and significantly correlated (P

Addition of whey protein concentrate (WPC), whey protein isolate (WPI) or soy protein isolate (SPI) to salt-soluble muscle proteins (SSP) decreased the gel strength. WPI:SSP gels had higher water-holding capacity than SSP, SSP:WPC or SSP:SPI gels. Myosin heavy chain was a principal contributor to gel network formation in SSP, SSP:WPC, SSP:WPI and SSP:SPI systems. The characteristic fibrous network formed by SSP was the dominant feature of the microstructure of SSP:WPC and SSP:WPI gels. SSP:SPI gels had a more aggregated appearance due to the occurrence of clusters of SPI throughout the gel matrix.

The functions of thiol groups in the denaturation, aggregation and gelation of chicken breast muscle myosin during heating in 0.6M NaCl, 50mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 6.5, was investigated by inhibiting disulfide (SS) bond formation using dithiothreitol (DTT). The endotherm of myosin heated in the presence or absence of DTT had similar thermal transition temperatures. Preventing SS bond formation increased the onset temperature for aggregation and gelation and decreased the elastic-like properties of the final gel matrix. Results indicated that SS bond formation was not a prerequisite for the gelation of chicken breast myosin. However, intermolecular SS bonds, especially from thiol groups on subfragment-1, contributed to gel network formation.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the importance of proteolysis and sarcomere length in determining the tenderness of bovine M. longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle over a 21-day period. This was done by altering the pre-rigor glycolytic behaviour of hot-boned LD muscles using different early post-mortem temperature regimes. Hot-boned LD muscles (n=8) were cut in two, randomised, placed in polythene bags and submerged in a water bath set at 5°C (rapidly chilled) and 15°C (slowly chilled) for 8h post-mortem. All muscles were then stored at 2°C for up to 21 days post-mortem. The temperature regimes altered the glycolytic behaviour of the muscles in the pre-rigor period. The slowly chilled muscles exhibited a faster (P0.01) pH fall than rapidly chilled muscles. Cold shortening was induced in rapidly chilled muscles as they had shorter (P0.01) sarcomere lengths than slowly chilled muscles up to day 21 post-mortem. Warner Bratzler shear force values (WBSF) deemed cold-shortened muscles as tougher than noncold shortened up to day 14 post-mortem. Both cold-shortened and noncold-shortened muscles tenderised over time to an extent where there was no significant difference in WBSF values by day 21 post-mortem. SDS-PAGE protein profiles indicated that the rate of proteolysis was faster in slowly chilled muscles when compared to rapidly chilled muscles. However by day 21 post-mortem it appeared that rapidly and slowly chilled muscles underwent proteolysis to the same extent.

It has now been more than a dozen years since the Eastern Division of the APA invited me to give an address on what was then a rather innovative topic: the published contributions of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century women to philosophy.' In that address, I highlighted the work of some sixty early modern women. I then said to the audience, "Why have I presented this somewhat interesting, but nonetheless exhausting .. . overview of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century women philosophers? Quite simply, to overwhelm you with the presence of women in early modern philosophy. It is only in this way that the problem of women's virtually complete absence in contemporary histories of philosophy becomes pressing, mind-boggling, possibly scandalous." My presentation had attempted to indicate the quantity and scope of women's published philosophical writing. It had also suggested that an acknowledgment of their contributions was evidenced by the representation of their work in the scholarly journals of the period and by the numerous editions and translations of their texts that continued to appear into the nineteenth century. But what about the status of these women in the histories of philosophy? Had they ever been well represented within the histories written before the twentieth century? In the second part of my address, I noted that in the seventeenth century Gilles Menages, Jean de La Forge, and Marguerite Buffet produced doxographies of women philosophers, and that one of the most widely read histories of philosophy, that by Thomas Stanley, contained a discussion of twenty-four women philosophers of the ancient world. In the nineteenth century, Mathurin de Lescure, Alexander Foucher de Careil, and Victor Cousin wrote books on

An argumental discourse The table of all the principal subjects Observations upon experimental philosophy Further observations upon experimental philosophy Observations upon the opinions of some ancient philosophers.

Our objectives were to explore the use of rapid participatory appraisal (RPA) in defining the health and social needs of women, and to formulate joint action plans between the residents and service providers. RPA included review of existing data, focus groups and questionnaire. The study was set in the Ardoyne area of North Belfast. A response rate of 85% was obtained. Priorities identified reflected holistic definition of health and included issues relating to physical environment, social supports, as well as traditional epidemiological data. The use of RPA in this study has demonstrated a greater insight into unmet health and social needs in the area. It has exposed the level and extent of poverty, such as poor nursery provision for the under 5s, lack of safe play areas, fuel poverty for the elderly person, high dependence on prescription drugs such as valium and antidepressants, as well as lack of access to specific services due to political boundaries.

Rabbit skeletal muscle troponin-T (200 μg ml(-1)) was incubated with μ-calpain (2 μl ml(-1)) under conditions of low temperature and high ionic strength for 180 min at 4°C and the peptides released analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Troponin-T was hydrolyzed rapidly with the simultaneous appearance of eight peptides with masses of less than 14 up to 26 kDa. Two peptides produced by 10 min of incubation were electroblotted and analysis of these peptides by N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry showed that the principal cleavage sites of μ-calpain on troponin-T were at Thr(45)-Ala(46), Leu(69)-Met(70), Glu(220)-Lys(221) and Asn(231)-Val(232). The peptides present in insufficient quantity for electroblotting were isolated by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Cleavage sites were also identified at Met(151)-Gly(152), Asn(188)-Ile(189), Lys(223)-Arg(224), Arg(233)-Ala(234) and Ala(240)-Lys(241). In general, μ-calpain cleaved bonds containing one hydrophobic amino acid residue and mainly towards the C-terminus of troponin-T.

This paper provides an analysis of the role of ‘outside’ or nonexecutive directors (NEDs) and their relationship with chief executive officers (CEOs) and entrepreneurs or ‘insiders’ in small growth companies. We discuss research results from a matched sample of forty-six interviews with a core sample of twenty-three companies with matched CEOs and NEDs. Findings are placed in the context of European small and medium-sized enterprises, where great attention has been given to the future development of long-term relationships such as those brought by outside directors in small companies.

Proteolysis of bovine F-actin by cathepsin D (E.C. 3.4.23.5) in 50 mM Na acetate buffer, pH 5.5, at 37°C was investigated using sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Actin was hydrolyzed by cathepsin D during incubation to peptides detectable by RP-HPLC, although no degradation products were detected by SDS-PAGE. Peptides (2% trichloroacetic acid-soluble) from the hydrolyzate were isolated by RP-HPLC on a C(18) column using an acetonitrile/water gradient and identified from their N-terminal sequence and mass. Cathepsin D cleavage sites were identified at Cys(12)-Asp(13), Gly(22)-Phe(23), Arg(30)-Ala(31), Thr(79)-Asn(80), Ile(87)-Trp(88), Thr(91)-Phe(92), Phe(92)-Tyr(93), Arg(97)-Val(98), His(103)-Pro(104), Leu(107)-Thr(108), Thr(108)-Glu(109), Lys(120)-Met(121), Leu(144)-Tyr(145), Ile(153)-Val(154), Leu(155)-Asp(156), Ile(167)-Tyr(168), Leu(180)-Asp(181), Met(192)-Lys(193), Leu(195)-Thr(196), Arg(208)-Glu(209), Arg(212)-Asp(213), Leu(223)-Asp(224), Lys(240)-Ser(241), Thr(262)-Leu(263), Trp(342)-Ile(343), Arg(349)-Ser(350), Trp(358)-Ile(359), and Lys(375)-Cys(376). In general, cathepsin D preferentially cleaved bonds containing at least one hydrophobic amino acid residue. The results of this study showed that actin was degraded extensively by cathepsin D with peptides released from numerous locations in the protein molecule.

Provides an analysis of the role of “external” or non‐executive directors and their relationship with executive entrepreneurs in small but entrepreneurial (growing) companies, focusing on their influence on executive learning. We provide qualitative analysis of research based on 45 face‐to‐face interviews. Despite the importance given to individual executive and organisational learning in large companies, comparatively little literature exists on executive entrepreneurial learning in small companies. The factors that can affect such learning are discussed with emphasis on the role played by external directors who, it is argued, are likely to be appointed in such companies due to the need for additional expertise and knowledge in a rapidly changing environment.

The paper provides an analysis of the role of 'outside' or non-executive directors and their relationship with Chief Executive officers (CEOs) and entrepreneurs in small growth companies. In a European context, literature on the role of outsiders in the Board of Directors is beginning to emerge through recent studies into relationships between insiders and outsiders on Boards, especially on the importance of trust in relationships and on Board members' roles. In the USA, partly due to the more advanced nature of the venture capital sector, research has focused on the value-added that may result from the addition of 'outside' directors to the entrepreneurial team. This paper discusses findings from a matched sample of 46 interviews with a core sample of 23 companies with matched entrepreneurs/CEOs and non-executive directors to unlock the black box of director relationships. Findings are placed in a European SME context where greater attention has been placed for future development in developing longer-ter...

The paper provides an analysis of the role of 'external' or non-executive directors and their relationship with entrepreneurs in small growth companies, focusing on their impact and style of intervention. We provide qualitative and quantitative analysis of research based on 46 face-to-face interviews with CEOs in small entrepreneurial companies, undertaken in Scotland. Further analysis has been conducted on a sub-sample of firms who have external directors appointed as a result of raising venture capital to compare the impact and role of VC appointed and non-VC appointed board members.

The sensory characteristics of 11 hams were measured by 18 untrained consumers using Free-Choice Profiling and the data were analysed by Generalised Procrustes Analysis. Each consumer expressed their preference as an additional question. The first three dimensions of the analysis accounted for 37.9, 9.0 and 7.8% of the consensus variance, respectively, and Analysis of Variance showed significant differences between hams on all three dimensions. To summarise the freely chosen descriptive vocabularies, and help characterise each ham, descriptors thought to have similar meaning were separately modeled by Principal Components Analysis and model-to-model distances within the sensory groups of appearance, texture and flavour were calculated using Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy. Wiltshire type hams appeared marbled and dark in colour, had a fibrous and chewy texture and a hammy and meaty flavour. A shoulder meat ham appeared processed, rubbery, plastic and moist, had a processed, rubbery, moist and strong structured texture and a processed flavour. Modern tumbled hams varied in sensory character between the Wiltshire and the shoulder hams, and their character was reflected by their price. Preference was expressed for the Wiltshire hams and the modern tumbled hams with Wiltshire-type character.

Chicken surimi was prepared from fresh mechanically separated chicken meat using a sodium bicarbonate washing process. The heat-induced gelation properties were assessed under different conditions of pH, temperature, heating rate, protein and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) concentrations. Surimi gel strength increased (p < 0.05) after: reducing pH from 6.4 to 6.0, increasing temperature from 40 degrees C to 80 degrees C, reducing heating rate from 5 degrees C/min to 1 degree C/min, increasing protein concentration from 4% (w/w) to 8% (w/w) or addition of 0.3% (w/w) TPP. Freeze thaw stability studies revealed that the gel strength of surimi decreased (p < 0.05) when subjected to frozen storage at -18 degrees C.

To elucidate the roles of the head and tail portions of chicken breast muscle myosin in gelation, the thermal stability and aggregation behavior of myosin and seven subfragments in 0.6 M NaCl, pH 6.5, were investigated, namely, myosin heavy chain (MHC), light chains (LC), heavy meromyosin (HMM), light meromyosin (LMM), rod, subfragment 2 (S-2), and subfragment 1 (S-1). Myosin had four independent cooperative endothermic transitions (Tm) at 47, 54, 57, and 63 °C and aggregated from 50 to 70 °C. The MHC endotherm had peaks at 46, 54, and 64 °C and aggregated between 45 and 63 °C. S-1 unfolded in a single transition, having a Tm of 47.7 °C, and aggregated from 49 to 53 °C. The rod melted between 30 and 63.3 °C and continuously aggregated over this temperature range. Initial unfolding of the rod occurred in the LMM region. S-2 was primarily responsible for denaturation and aggregation above 55 °C. Transition temperatures of 48 and 57 °C were recorded for LC; however, no aggregation occurred. The rod had the b...

Increasing concentrations of KCl, KF and NaCl from 0·2 to 1·0 m increased the compressive strength and cohesiveness of heat-induced actomyosin gels (0·6 m KCl pH 6·0). On the other hand, KBr, KSCN, KI, NH 4 Cl, MgCl 2 and CaCl 2 decreased gel strength and cohesiveness. Gel compressive strength increased with increasing urea concentration (0·4–2·4 m). Addition of the sulphydryl blocking agent N-ethylmaleimide and the reducing agents dithiothreitol and cysteine decreased the compressive strength and cohesiveness of actomyosin gels. Overall, the results indicate that hydrophobic interactions, disulphide and hydrogen bonding contribute to the formation and stabilization of actomyosin gels.

Rheological properties of actomyosin gels were markedly affected by protein concentration, pH and heating temperature. Gel strength increased with increasing protein concentration (30-60 mg ml(-1)) and heating temperature (55-75°C), but decreased with increasing pH (5·5-9·0). Low heating temperatures (50-55°C) favoured the formation of more cohesive actomyosin gels than the higher heating temperatures (60-75°C). Gels formed at low pH (5·5 and 6·0) were less cohesive than those formed at high pH (7·5-9·0). Addition of ATP and pyrophosphate (10 mm) prior to heating decreased gel strength and cohesiveness, whereas EDTA (1-5 mM) reduced gel strength but did not affect gel cohesiveness.

Sarcoplasmic proteins isolated from bovine livers were hydrolyzed using the enzyme thermolysin at 37°C for 2h. The hydrolyzates were filtered through molecular weight cut off membranes (MWCO) and filtrates were obtained. The water activity (a(w)) of unhydrolysed sarcoplasmic protein, full hydrolyzates, 10-kDa and 3-kDa filtrates were below the limit necessary for microbial growth. The antioxidant activities of both filtrates and fractions were assessed using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity assay, the ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and the Fe(2+) chelating ability assay. RP-HPLC was used for purification of the full hydrolyzates, the 10-kDa and the 3-kDa filtrates. The peptidic content of the full hydrolyzates, the 10-kDa and the 3-kDa filtrates were assessed using the Dumas method and peptide contents of each fraction were characterized using electrospray quadrupole time-of-flight (ESI-Q-TOF) mass spectrometry with the resultant spectrum analysed using the software programmes Protein Lynx Global Server 2.4. and TurboSEQUEST. Similarities between the amino acid composition of characterized peptides from each fraction and previously reported antioxidant peptides were found. This study demonstrates that meat by-product such as liver can be utilised as raw material for the generation of bioactive peptides with demonstrated antioxidant activities in vitro using the enzyme thermolysin. It is significant as it presents a potential opportunity for meat processors to use their waste streams for the generation of bioactive peptides for potential functional food use.

The surface-active properties of myosin, actomyosin, F- and G-actin at the air-solvent interface, at initial bulk phase concentrations in the range of 10 − 4 % to 10 − 2 % w/v, were determined by the drop volume method. Overall myosin was the most effective surface tension depressor, followed by actomyosin, F-actin and G-actin. The surface pressures attained after 40 min at an initial bulk phase concentration of 10 − 2 % w/v were 21·02, 19·27, 17·25 and 14·91 mNm − 1 , respectively. Furthermore, myosin effected the most rapid change in surface pressure during the initial 5-min period.

Understanding the relationship between the motor impairments and their impact on physical activity will allow rehabilitation after stroke to be based on scientific principles. The aims of this study were to determine: (i) the relative contribution of weakness and spasticity to contracture, and (ii) the relative contribution of all three impairments to limitations in physical activity during the first 12 months after stroke.This longitudinal observational study charted the evolution of weakness (loss of maximal force), spasticity (stretch-evoked EMG) and contracture (loss of joint range) of the elbow flexors and limitations in upper limb activity (Motor Assessment Scale) for a year after stroke in 27 subjects who had suffered a first stroke. Spasticity was measured as abnormal reflex activity, weakness was measured as loss of maximum isometric torque, contracture was measured as the difference in range of motion between the affected and intact side, and limitations in physical activity were measured on a clinical scale.The major independent contributors to contracture were spasticity for the first four months after stroke (p = 0.0001 - 0.10) and weakness thereafter (p = 0.01 - 0.05). However, the major and only independent contributor to limitations in physical activity throughout the year was weakness (p = 0.0001 - 0.05).For the first time, from a longitudinal study, the findings show that spasticity can cause contracture after stroke, consistent with the prevailing clinical view. However, weakness is the main contributor to activity limitations.

This book showcases the best current work now being written on a wide range of issues in early modern philosophy, when some of the most influential current philosophical problems were first identified by figures like Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Spinoza, and Descartes. Collectively the chapters in this book exemplify the wide range of methodological perspectives currently being employed by top figures in the field.