Search

Background Pit latrine operational management and sludge accumulation rate, presents a challenging sanitation problem in low-income urban settlements. However, these challenges have been under-researched. This study was carried out between December 2014 and September 2015 in Nakuru, Kenya. Its objectives were to determine pit latrine management activities and content accumulation rates. Methods A longitudinal design was used to study 100 households and their respective pit latrines. Sludge accumulation in 73 pit latrines was monitored for 10 months using a digital laser range-finder. Data analysis included normality testing and descriptive statistics. Differences in fill up across and within the study areas were analysed using one-way analysis of variance and the Fisher’s Exact Test used to determine areas with significant differences. Results Sixty-one percent of the pit latrines were used as solid waste disposal points while 45% of the respondents had no hygiene awareness. The annual fill-up rate and individual sludge contribution were 0.87 ± 0.20 m3 and 41.82 l respectively. The sludge accumulation rates across the study areas had statistically significant mean differences (p

Njoro sub-county in Kenya suffers from constant water shortages causing the residents to rely on both improved and unimproved water sources in the area. The households in the sub-county also use different household storage containers to store drinking water in times when water is not readily available. This study was therefore undertaken to assess selective physico-chemical parameters of water used by the population for drinking purposes using standard assessment methods. A total of 372 water source samples and 162 storage container water samples were tested over a period of three months. Turbidity (0.70–273.85 NTU), iron (0.7–2.10 mg/L), fluoride (0.15–4.01 mg/L), manganese (0.01–0.37 mg/L), and nitrate (0.09–27.90 mg/L) levels in water samples were generally higher than the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) and/or the World Health Organization (WHO) water quality recommendations for safe drinkable water. The results from this study support the need for continuous monitoring and treating drinking water at the points of collection and of consumption to minimize the long-term health effects on communities consuming this water.

On-site sanitation facilities, mostly pit latrines are the main points of human excreta disposal in peri-urban low-income settlements in Kenya. Collection, treatment and final disposal of pit latrine faecal sludge, pose a significant management problem and present public health risks. The choice of appropriate faecal sludge treatment technology depends on precise region based data on the sludge characteristics that are often unavailable. The study analysed physiochemical characteristics of faecal sludge sampled at different depths of pit latrines. Twenty-four samples were collected from six pit latrines along the depth strata at 1-m intervals from the surface to 3 m depth. Samples were analysed for chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ammonia, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The mean COD: BOD ratio was 1:5 with a concentration of 112800 and 24600 mg/L, respectively. Concentrations for all parameters were variable and higher in comparison with properties reported in literature. Upper layers had higher concentrations than lower depths. The concentrations of the sludge were 10-100 higher than acceptable limits for in-fluent sludge into municipal wastewater treatment plants. These results show that disposal of pit latrine faecal sludge into the wastewater treatment plants without co-treatment overload the system since treatment plants in use currently have not been designed to handle pit latrine sludge. The properties of faecal sludge analysed indicate that the wastewater treatment plants may not be capable of treating faecal sludge unless co treatment mechanisms are applied. Therefore, influent faecal sludge must be maintained within allowable concentrations; otherwise, the effluents may lead to significant environmental pollution impacts. Key words: On-site sanitation, depth strata, faecal sludge disposal, low-income settlements.

To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks.A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point.The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste.The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease.Évaluer, au sein des communautés touchées par des flambées de maladie à virus Ebola, les risques liés à l'élimination des déchets et excreta humains et formuler des recommandations pour limiter ces risques.Une équipe expérimentée dans l'application de la méthode d'analyse des risques et maîtrise des points critiques (HACCP) a identifié les déchets issus des activités de soin prodiguées aux personnes infectées par le virus Ebola et a élaboré, testé et confirmé plusieurs diagrammes des opérations illustrant la génération de ces déchets. Après avoir répertorié les risques potentiels associés à chaque étape de chaque diagramme, l'équipe a mené une analyse des risques, identifié les points critiques pour leur maîtrise et préparé des recommandations pour réduire les risques de transmission à chaque point de maîtrise.La collecte, le transport, le nettoyage et l'utilisation partagée de fomites maculés de sang ainsi que l'utilisation partagée de latrines souillées par du sang ou des fèces contenant du sang semblent être associés à des niveaux de risque de transmission du virus Ebola particulièrement élevés. Des niveaux de risque plus modérés sont associés à la collecte et au transport d'équipements souillés par des fluides corporels autres que le sang, à l'utilisation partagé de latrines souillées par ce type de fluides, au nettoyage et à l'utilisation partagée de fomites souillés par ce type de fluides ainsi qu’à la contamination de l'environnement pendant la collecte et le transport de déchets tachés de sang.Le risque de transmission du virus Ebola par des déchets pourrait être réduit par l'utilisation d'équipements de protection individuelle complets, par une hygiène des mains appropriée et par l'application d'un désinfectant adapté après un nettoyage scrupuleux. L'utilisation de la méthode d'analyse des risques et maîtrise des points critiques (HACCP) pourrait aider à réagir rapidement en cas de flambée de maladies infectieuses émergentes.Evaluar, dentro de las comunidades que han sufrido brotes del virus del Ebola, los riesgos relacionados con la eliminación de los desechos humanos y redactar recomendaciones para mitigarlos.Un equipo con experiencia en el análisis de peligros en puntos críticos de control identificó productos de desecho generados por el cuidado de individuos infectados con el virus del Ebola y construyó, probó y confirmó diagramas de flujo que mostraban la creación de dichos productos. Tras redactar una lista de los potenciales peligros relacionados con cada paso de cada diagrama de flujo, el equipo realizó un análisis de peligros, determinó los puntos críticos de control y creó recomendaciones para mitigar los riesgos de contagio en todos los puntos de control.La recolección, el transporte, la limpieza y el uso común de fómites contaminados con sangre y el uso común de letrinas contaminadas con sangre o heces con sangre parecían estar relacionados con riesgos especialmente elevados de contagio del virus del Ebola. Unos niveles de riesgo más moderados se relacionaron con la recolección y el transporte de material contaminado con fluidos corporales distintos a la sangre, el uso común de letrinas sucias con dichos fluidos, la limpieza y el uso de fómites contaminados con dichos fluidos y la contaminación del entorno durante la recolección y el transporte de desperdicios impregnados en sangre.El riesgo de contagio del virus del Ébola en relación con los desechos podría verse reducido mediante el uso de un equipo de protección individual completo, una higiene de las manos adecuada y un desinfectante apropiado tras una limpieza exhaustiva. El uso del análisis de peligros en puntos críticos de control podría proporcionar una rápida respuesta ante brotes de enfermedades contagiosas emergentes.تقييم المخاطر المرتبطة بالتخلص من النفايات البشرية ووضع توصيات للتخفيف من مثل هذه المخاطر داخل المجتمعات التي تعاني من حالات تفشي فيروس الإيبولا.قام فريق من المتمرسين في التعامل مع إطار العمل الخاص بتحليل المخاطر في نقاط التحكم الحرجة بالإشارة إلى النفايات الناتجة عن الرعاية الصحية للمصابين بمرض فيروس الإيبولا باعتبارها مصدرًا للخطر، وقاموا برسم مخططات تدفق توضح نشوء هذه النواتج الخطرة، كما قاموا باختبار تلك المخططات والتأكيد عليها. وبعد سرد المخاطر المحتملة المرتبطة بكل خطوة في كل مخطط من مخططات التدفق، قام الفريق بإجراء تحليل المخاطر، وتحديد نقاط التحكم الحرجة، ووضع التوصيات التي من شأنها التخفيف من مخاطر العدوى في كل نقطة من نقاط التحكم.يبدو أن عمليات جمع الأدوات المعدية المتسخة بالدم ونقلها وتنظيفها والاستخدام المشترك لها، وكذلك الاستخدام المشترك للمراحيض الملوثة بالدم أو البراز المدمى ترتبط بحدوث ارتفاع ملموس في مستويات الخطر لانتقال فيروس الإيبولا. وعلى الجانب الآخر، كانت المستويات الأكثر اعتدالاً من المخاطر قد ارتبطت بعمليات جمع ونقل المواد الملوثة بسوائل الجسم الأخرى غير الدم، والاستخدام المشترك للمراحيض المتسخة بمثل هذه السوائل، وعمليات التنظيف والاستخدام المشترك للأدوات المعدية المتسخة بمثل هذه السوائل، وتلوث البيئة أثناء جمع ونقل النفايات الملوثة بالدم.يمكن خفض خطر انتقال فيروس الإيبولا المتعلق بالنفايات عن طريق استخدام معدات الحماية الشخصية الكاملة، والاهتمام بالنظافة المناسبة لليدين، ووضع مطهر مناسب بعد التنظيف بعناية. ولذلك، فمن الممكن أن يقود الاعتماد على إطار العمل الخاص بتحليل المخاطر في نقاط التحكم الحرجة إلى تيسير سبل الاستجابة السريعة لحالات تفشي الأمراض المعدية الناشئة.旨在评估埃博拉病毒爆发社区内，与人类废弃物处理相关的风险，并给出降低此类风险的建议。.具备关键控制点框架危害分析专业知识的专家团队，确定了护理埃博拉病毒患者产生的废弃物，并且构建出此类废弃物产生的流程图，同时对该流程图进行测试和确认。 列出与各流程图每一步骤相关的潜在危害之后，该团队展开危害分析，确定了关键控制点并给出了降低各控制点传播风险的建议。.收集、运输、清洁和共用被血液污染的传染物，共用被血液污染的厕所或血迹斑斑的粪便疑似与极高的埃博拉病毒传播风险尤为相关。 收集和运输体液而非血液污染的物质，共用被此类体液污染的厕所，清洁和共用此类体液污染的传染物，以及收集和运输血污染废弃物期间的环境污染与较低风险水平相关。.可通过使用全方位个人防护装备、仔细清洁后正确清洁手部和使用消毒剂，降低与废弃物相关的埃博拉病毒传播风险。 使用关键控制点框架危害分析可促进对新兴传染病疫情爆发的快速响应。.Провести оценку рисков в связи с утилизацией человеческих отходов в общинах, страдающих от вспышек эпидемии лихорадки Эбола, и составить рекомендации для снижения таких рисков.Группа специалистов, обладающих опытом в анализе риска на основе критических контрольных показателей, определила отходы, которые образуются в результате ухода за заразившимися вирусом Эбола, спроектировала и протестировала блок-схемы, иллюстрирующие образование таких отходов, и подтвердила их правильность. Перечислив потенциальные риски, сопряженные с каждым этапом каждой блок-схемы, группа специалистов осуществила анализ риска, определила критические контрольные показатели и составила рекомендации для снижения риска передачи по каждому контрольному показателю.Было определено, что сбор, транспортировка, очистка и коллективное использование загрязненных кровью фомитов и коллективное использование уборных, загрязненных кровью или калом с кровью, ассоциируются с чрезвычайно высоким риском передачи вируса Эбола. Менее высокий уровень риска был связан со сбором и транспортировкой материала, загрязненного биологическими жидкостями, отличными от крови, совместным использованием уборных, содержащих такие жидкости, очисткой и совместным использованием фомитов, загрязненных такими жидкостями, а также с загрязнением окружающей среды при сборе и транспортировке отходов, загрязненных кровью.Риск передачи вируса Эбола, присутствующего в отходах, может быть снижен путем использования полного комплекта средств индивидуальной защиты, следования правилам надлежащей гигиены рук и применения подходящего дезинфицирующего средства после тщательной очистки. Проведение анализа риска на основе критических контрольных показателей могло бы способствовать быстрому реагированию на вспышки эпидемии нового инфекционного заболевания.

Background Despite its contribution to global disease burden, diarrhoeal disease is still a relatively neglected area for research funding, especially in low-income country settings. The SNOWS consortium (Scientists Networked for Outcomes from Water and Sanitation) is funded by the Wellcome Trust under an initiative to build the necessary research skills in Africa. This paper focuses on the research training needs of the consortium as identified during the first three years of the project. Methods We reviewed the reports of two needs assessments. The first was a detailed needs assessment led by one northern partner, with follow-up visits which included reciprocal representation from the African universities. The second assessment, led by another northern partner, focused primarily on training needs. The reports from both needs assessments were read and stated needs were extracted and summarised. Results Key common issues identified in both assessments were supervisory skills, applications for external research funding, research management, and writing for publication in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. The bureaucratisation of university processes and inconsistencies through administration processes also caused problems. The lack of specialist laboratory equipment presented difficulties, particularly of inaccessibility through a lack of skilled staff for operation and maintenance, and of a budget provision for repairs and running costs. The lack of taught PhD modules and of research training methods also caused problems. Institutionally, there were often no mechanisms for identifying funding opportunities. On the other hand, grantees were often unable to understand or comply with the funders’ financial and reporting requirements and were not supported by their institution. Skills in staff recruitment, retention, and performance were poor, as were performance in proposal and paper writing. The requirements for ethical clearance were often not known and governance issues not understood, particularly those required by funders. Conclusions SNOWS believes that working with African universities to develop networks that support African-led research driven by the local context is an effective approach to develop and retain research skills needed to change policy and practice in water, sanitation, and hygiene in Africa. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1478-4505-12-68) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.