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The ISO 15189 accreditation of biological analysis needs the validation of the analytical methods allowing the evaluation of their performance including all the factors that could influence the quality of their results. The field of autoimmunity includes many analyses and methods such as the indirect immunofluorescence technique (IIF) and the performance of this technique largely depends on the competency of staff members. For each staff member, the required levels of competency have to be precisely defined and evaluated after a period of formation before the final habilitation for the IIF technique. The French group of the international group called EASI (European autoimmunity standardisation initiative) proposes two habilitation forms to be filled with criteria, evidence and maintenance of target skills for the IIF preparation of slides and reading. These forms could be used as a model for the IIF formation and habilitation and have to be adapted to the routine practice of the laboratories.

Background: Although enrollment in RN-to-BSN degree completion programs has grown profoundly, a dearth of literature exists regarding the impact of RN-to-BSN education and the adoption of evidence-based practice (EBP). This study examined the elements of RN-to-BSN education that improve the awareness and adoption for EBP., Method: A mixed methods meta-synthesis was conducted using qualitative, textual-narrative, and descriptive research studies. Data from six articles were analyzed, using standardized critical appraisal instruments., Results: Two findings were identified. First, EBP skills for RN-to-BSN students are influenced by exposure to educational partnerships, contextual teaching and learning, and practice experiences. Second, barriers to adoption exist for RN-to-BSN students, which limit advances in nursing practice., Conclusion: A variety of contextual teaching and learning strategies can provide empowerment for RN-to-BSN students to adopt EBP in their practice. Forming partnerships in creating EBP experiences may set the stage for RN-to-BSN leadership opportunities in today's health care system., (Copyright 2014, SLACK Incorporated.)

There is growing recognition of the need to reeducate clinically inactive physicians seeking to return to practice and in the facilitation of this return. Physicians seeking to return to practice face many challenges: maneuvering the various requirements of licensing, medical, and credentialing boards; finding an appropriate educational program to become up to date in current practice; paying for the program; and overcoming personal obstacles. Educational programs also face challenges: cost of development and maintenance; allocation of staff and faculty time to reeducate returning physicians alongside other learners; provision of emotional counseling and career guidance; interpretation of varied licensing and board guidelines; and the need to tailor one's program to individual trainees. Despite these challenges, some programs are returning physicians to the workforce. To provide perspective, we review why physicians leave medicine and return. We then discuss challenges for returning physicians and program developers and highlight current educational resources and organizational efforts to facilitate return. We close by offering next steps for programs to facilitate return., (Copyright © 2012 The Alliance for Continuing Education in the Health Professions, the Society for Academic Continuing Medical Education, and the Council on CME, Association for Hospital Medical Education.)

Introduction: Few formal educational programs are available in the United States to assist physicians wishing to return to medical practice after clinical inactivity. Little published data on physicians who complete these programs exist. We describe the Drexel Medicine Physician Reentry/Refresher course and present our findings on participant demographics, performance, and goal attainment following course completion., Methods: Physician self-assessment, future career goals, recommendations of referring organizations, and a quantitative assessment of knowledge and skills were used to create individualized learning objectives and physician's curriculum. Initial assessment included demonstration of clinical skills using standardized patients and medical knowledge using the National Board of Medical Examiners Comprehensive Clinical Medicine Self-Assessment Examination. Progress in knowledge and clinical skills was measured by repeat assessment at course completion. We questioned physicians 3 months after course completion to determine if initial goals were attained., Results: Thirty-six physicians completed the program from November 2006 through November 2010. Most physicians demonstrated significant improvement in core clinical skills and knowledge at the end of the course. All physicians who sought employment, hospital privileges, and refreshing skills as initial goals were successful., Conclusion: The Drexel Medicine Physician Reentry/Refresher course provides a unique model for successfully returning inactive physicians to clinical practice.

The aim of this short communication is to highlight the numbers of non-UK EEA qualified dentists currently registered with the General Dental Council (GDC) and to present a brief overview of the systems for the provision of oral healthcare in the non-UK EEA member states identifying differences in practise. The relevant data were gathered for the National Clinical Assessment Service (NCAS) as part of a wider project. It was found that at 31 December 2010, 28% of dentists registered with the GDC had not qualified in the UK. Of these more than 6,300 were European Economic Area (EEA) dentists with non-UK qualifications. The nature of their practise varied widely from member state to member state. The implications of these findings are discussed briefly.

This article describes a pilot study on the use of online course standards for peer review of Web-based nursing courses. A peer review team consisting of a nurse educator and an instructional designer piloted the use of two sets of online course standards in two RN-to-baccalaureate nursing courses. The College of Public Health Online Course Standards and the Quality Matters (QM) Peer Course Review Rubric were used to review the courses. The standards facilitated the peer review process and supplied important criteria for measuring the quality of the courses. Analysis of the rubric scores revealed trends in criteria not met in either course, indicating the need for educational program improvement and faculty training. The QM tool had more consistent results among peer reviewers and was perceived as easier to use. In addition, QM standards provided a useful mechanism for benchmarking against higher education courses throughout the United States.

The Three Cs Model integrates the National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission's accreditation standards. The three major concepts of this model -- Context, Content, and Conduct -- relate to one or more of the accreditation standards. This model has been used to integrate three levels of programs in one nursing department and facilitate the self-study process for ongoing accreditation of each program. The model is used to implement the nursing department's strategic plan, provide a systematic framework for curriculum and program evaluation, design graduate courses, and develop a new doctor of nursing practice program. The Three Cs Model provides an innovative framework that integrates standards to verify, clarify, and amplify excellence in nursing education.

Programs offering accelerated baccalaureate (BSN) curricula to students with bachelor's degrees in other fields are growing in popularity. Such students' academic ability may differ from that of students pursuing the BSN as their first degree, due to academic maturity, greater confidence, and polished study skills. This study directly compared accelerated second-degree BSN and traditional BSN students under controlled conditions matched for identical instruction and performance measures. Outcomes analyzed included class test scores, nationally standardized examination scores, skills laboratory performance, and final course grades. Age, as a possible factor of any such differences, was also analyzed. The accelerated students performed significantly higher on every measure than did the students in the traditional program. Age was not found to be predictive of success in either group. Recommendations include modification of teaching strategies to accommodate accelerated students capable of higher performance.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of staying inactive for well-trained microneurosurgical hand and to determine the critical time period in the decreasing of this special ability (microneurosurgery). For this purpose we planned a case-based and time-dependent study. This study was done on a microneurosurgeon who previously worked very actively in a department of neurosurgery (at least one operation in a day). He received a new appointment which included staying inactive in another department for a certain period of time, like a medical doctor. He did hand practice everyday and scored his ability in the aspect of total beauty and harmony of the work. The total performance of work was graded as bad, good and excellent. A bad grade was scored as 1 point, a good grade as 2 points, and an excellent grade as 3 points. The inactive time period was divided into three equal periods of 30 days. The total numerical values were calculated and a mean score was estimated for each 30-day period. The differences among the first, second, and third periods were enumerated based on the mean scores. The mean score in the first 30 days was estimated as 2.56+/-0.49, in the second 30 days as 2.16+/-0.37, and in the third 30 days 1.66+/-0.47. The differences between these values were statistically significant. The result of this study revealed that neurosurgeons may gradually lose their well trained microneurosurgical ability through staying inactive from daily practice. The maintenance of trained microneurosurgical ability should be preserved by staying active in neurosurgical operative practice.

Multiple-choice questions are a common assessment method in nursing examinations. Few nurse educators, however, have formal preparation in constructing multiple-choice questions. Consequently, questions used in baccalaureate nursing assessments often contain item-writing flaws, or violations to accepted item-writing guidelines. In one nursing department, 2770 MCQs were collected from tests and examinations administered over a five-year period from 2001 to 2005. Questions were evaluated for 19 frequently occurring item-writing flaws, for cognitive level, for question source, and for the distribution of correct answers. Results show that almost half (46.2%) of the questions contained violations of item-writing guidelines and over 90% were written at low cognitive levels. Only a small proportion of questions were teacher generated (14.1%), while 36.2% were taken from testbanks and almost half (49.4%) had no source identified. MCQs written at a lower cognitive level were significantly more likely to contain item-writing flaws. While there was no relationship between the source of the question and item-writing flaws, teacher-generated questions were more likely to be written at higher cognitive levels (p<0.001). Correct answers were evenly distributed across all four options and no bias was noted in the placement of correct options. Further training in item-writing is recommended for all faculty members who are responsible for developing tests. Pre-test review and quality assessment is also recommended to reduce the occurrence of item-writing flaws and to improve the quality of test questions.

The purpose of this study was to compare the critical thinking ability of students enrolled in associate, baccalaureate, and Registered Nurse-Bachelor of Science in Nursing (RN-to-BSN) programs in Korea. The participants were 301 undergraduate nursing students. The instrument used for this study was the Watson & Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, and analysis of variance with Scheffe's multiple comparison. The average critical thinking ability score was 41.59. Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) students scored significantly higher on critical thinking than the other 2 groups. Students < or = 22 years of age scored higher than the other age groups on critical thinking. This study provides preliminary evidence that the length and content of an educational program is as important as its focus on enabling students to develop their critical thinking abilities. This finding suggests a need to infuse critical thinking activities early in existing secondary school curricula as a way of encouraging students to develop their thinking abilities earlier.

The purpose of this study was to establish interrater reliability of the Critical Thinking Scale (CTS), a teacher-accessible tool designed to measure the critical thinking of baccalaureate nursing students as evidenced in their reflective writing about their practice experiences.The study is an extension of an earlier pilot test of the CTS. Graduating students from a nursing program at a small liberal arts college were asked to write about a significant practice experience encountered during their last clinical course. Three teachers used the CTS to independently evaluate the students' writing. California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) scores provided a standard measure of critical thinking. Results indicated statistically significant positive relationships between the CCTST total critical thinking score and mean teacher ratings using the CTS. Meaningfully significant interrater reliability ratings for the CTS were also found. With further development, the CTS has promise as an appropriate tool to evaluate students' reflective writing for evidence of critical thinking.

The concept of caring in nursing education is foundational. Knowledge development regarding caring in face-to-face classroom settings, effective online teaching approaches, differences between online and face-to-face classroom settings, and supporting student success in online settings is extensive. However, the question of whether caring can be effectively conveyed in online nursing classroom settings remains unanswered. This qualitative study explored the perceptions of one cohort of RN to BSN students regarding how instructors convey caring in online education. Thirteen students were emailed surveys consisting of eight open-ended questions; II students responded. Eight themes emerged from the data: frequent feedback, timeliness, reciprocity of caring online, personal connection and empathy, clarity, multiple contact opportunities, second-fiddle worries, and teacher's commitment to learning.

This study investigated the critical thinking dispositions and skills of senior nursing students. Study participants were students enrolled in associate (n = 137), baccalaureate (n = 102), and RN-to-BSN (n = 66) programs accredited by the Korean Ministry of Education. The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) and California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) were used. A comparison of the CCTDI scores revealed a statistically significant difference between the students enrolled in different programs (F = 4.159, p = 0.017), as did a comparison of the CCTST scores (F = 24.205, p < 0.0001). Within the total sample (n = 305), the relationship between CCTDI and CCTST scores was significant (r = 0.305, p = 0.000). Developments in medical technology, the growing number of older adults and patients with chronic illnesses, and the demand for high-quality nursing care have led to various, increasingly complex, professional, legal, and educational issues within the nursing workplace. Therefore, nurses need creativity and critical thinking skills to make the decisions required of them in their nursing practice. In line with this, when conducting a survey of the effectiveness of nursing education, the necessity of critical thinking skills cannot be overlooked. In fact, the National League for Nursing Accrediting Commission (NLNAC) (1999) and American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) (1998) require the concept of critical thinking be included as one of the core elements of curricula and that it be measured as an outcome when evaluating nursing education. In 1998, during the evaluation of colleges of nursing conducted by the South Korean Council for University Education, several universities presented the fostering of critical thinking as one of the terminal learning goals of nursing education based on the idea that critical thinking is important not only in the nursing workplace, but also in nursing education. To evaluate the effectiveness of Korea's current nursing education curriculum, focus was placed on current students in South Korea's three systems of nursing education. Each curriculum's effectiveness can be evaluated by indexing critical thinking dispositions and skills. This article intends to offer insight into the first steps necessary in reorganizing nursing education by comparing these evaluations of each of the three systems. To this end, we conducted a comparative study of the critical thinking dispositions and skills of students in 3-year associate degree (ADN), 4-year baccalaureate (BSN), and 5-year RN-to-BSN programs. The RN-to-BSN program requires students to finish a separate 2-year program after the initial 3-year ADN program.

Unlabelled: Changes to statutory requirements led to the need to redesign the current shortened programme for graduates (SPG) offered by the University of Dundee. A review of the literature revealed very little published material relating to this type of programme and that which did exist was predominantly American in origin. Prior to developing a new programme a study was carried out. The aim of the study was to explore the attitudes and opinions of non-nurse graduates currently undertaking the accelerated pre-registration programme of study offered by the University of Dundee., Design: Purposive sampling was adopted and all students currently undertaking the programme were invited to participate. Data were collected using three focus group interviews with a minimum of five and a maximum of seven participants. All interviews were tape-recorded. The tapes were transcribed and data analysed using a content analysis approach., Findings: Several important themes and sub-themes emerged from the interviews. These were consistent across all groups. The themes were:, Discussion: The data offered a rich insight into the attitudes and opinions of students undertaking the current SPG. The findings supported those of previous studies and have been used to inform curriculum development.

This article reports the lessons learnt from a period of retraining and from discussion with others who have been involved in a similar process. The conclusions are that retraining should only be undertaken once there is full agreement between all parties involved that it is necessary and feasible. There must also be agreement in advance of the criteria which will constitute successful retraining, and the actions which will be taken to ensure the rapid return of the retrainee to the type of practice which is being offered and has been accepted. The process of retraining requires especially close supervision and is very stressful for the retrainee. It is likely that this should only be undertaken in units specially staffed and funded to accommodate this type of work.

Refresher and reentry courses for registered nurses (RNs) are being used to recruit inactive nurses back into practice in the present nursing shortage. Built on models of staff development orientation for newly employed RNs and continuing education for adult learners, two refresher/reentry programs are described. University- and hospital-based RN refresher courses had similar enrollments and positive evaluations, but different curriculum organization; cost and employment outcomes varied. Both employment prior to the class and collaboration among providers greatly enhance positive outcomes.

Public health nurses from 13 local public health agencies and nurse educators from five schools of nursing developed population-based public health nursing competencies for new graduates and novice public health nurses. Educators in one nursing program used a portfolio assignment to measure achievement of the competencies by traditional and RN to BSN students in a community health nursing course. Data were collected from surveys and focus groups to determine students' responses to the portfolio and their use of population-based public health nursing concepts. The assignment enhanced students' critical thinking skills; however, concerns about the structure and evaluation of the portfolio decreased student satisfaction. Recommendations are made for improving the portfolio format, increasing students' valuing of the portfolio, managing the tension between assessment and learning, and orienting clinical agency staff and nursing instructors.

Web-based teaching was strategically used to supplement classroom instruction in an epidemiology course for RN-to-BSN students. This article investigates how the "Seven Principles for Good Practice" were applied as a guide when teaching this online course and discusses this innovative teaching strategy with the aim of advancing pedagogical strategies from the traditional, teacher-centered paradigm to an active, learner-centered paradigm.

Schools of nursing are increasingly administering computerized exams developed by Health Education Systems, Inc (HESI) to evaluate student and program outcomes and provide evidence-based rationale for curriculum development and modification. This article describes the methods used to establish the reliability and validity of HESI specialty exams and HESI exit exams. Discussion of current reliability and validity findings and recommendations for future research to enhance the quantification of validity data for HESI exams are presented.

This 3-year longitudinal study used a questionnaire to evaluate the clinical nursing competence of RN-to-BSN students in a nursing concept-based curriculum in Taiwan. The research sample consisted of 52 full-time and 69 part-time RN-to-BSN students. A four-dimensional Clinical Nursing Competence Questionnaire was developed to measure student caring, communication/coordination, management/teaching, and professional self-growth competence. Results indicated full-time students' scores on self-evaluations of overall clinical nursing competence significantly increased with each successive evaluation (p < .05). The scores of part-time students fell significantly with successive evaluations, with the exception of professional self-growth competence (p < .01). Instructor evaluations generally showed no significant difference between the two groups. Student self-evaluations were significantly higher than instructor evaluations (p < .05). The results of this study may serve as a reference for nurse educators developing curricula for RN-to-BSN education.

Prior to 2002 Australians who wished to become midwives were expected to complete and undergraduate nursing degree and then apply for admission to a university-based post-nursing program in midwifery, usually requiring an additional year of study. Graduates were, therefore, qualified to practice in either profession. Many organisations, coalitions and individuals have contributed to the arduous struggle to ensure that midwives are educated in ways that allow them to confidently and competently fulfill their role as the World Health Organisation defines it. Indeed, in some states, universities and Nurses Boards recognising the need for multiple routes of entry to practice have introduced three-year undergraduate midwifery degrees. So far this has taken place in South Australia and Victoria but other states intend to follow this initiative. In this paper the background to the development of the ACMI National Bachelor of Midwifery Taskforce and the midwifery Program Standards will be discussed. A brief description of the Program Standards is presented to show how they can be used to ensure that 21st century midwives are capable of competently and confidently responding to the changing needs of maternity service providers and consumers. Finally, the authors argue that it is crucial that employers and clinicians have access to a standardised, objective means to evaluate midwifery programs, and believe that the Standards provide the means to do this.

Unlabelled: The current critical shortage of midwives is a worldwide phenomenon that has created the need for educational programs that prepare midwives, who have previously left midwifery practice, for return to the contemporary clinical workforce. This paper focuses on the support requirements of midwives involved in a refresher program as determined by a research project conducted at The Northern Hospital in Melbourne during 2001. The project was a small-scale case study involving eight program participants. Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used to generate data. Analysis of the data revealed that the concept of support must be considered from personal and professional perspectives, if successful outcomes are to be achieved., Introduction: The response of the Federal Government to the dire shortage of midwives currently working in public healthcare facilities has been to allocate funding to the states and territories for education and re-skilling programs, with the aim of enticing midwives back to clinical practice (Walsh 2001). In Victoria, refresher programs have been developed to meet the needs of midwives whose level of expertise has diminished due to lack of clinical experience, but who have fulfilled the necessary requirements.

Distance is obviously a core issue in distance education. But distance is a factor in classroom-based education as well. Classroom-based teachers and distance educators have a common interest in the dynamics of distance. The focus of much discussion in distance education is on geographical distance and how it may be bridged. However, this focus obscures the more fundamental issue of educational distance. Educational distance includes cognitive distance, role distance and access distance. This form of distance is as potent in the classroom environment as it is in a virtual learning environment. The writer explores this theme by his analysis of the communication patterns between teacher and students in one module in a BSc Health Studies degree programme. The writer has taught this module in both distance education format and in traditional classroom-based format. His finding is that the communication time between the teacher and students in the distance education form of the module is 29% greater than the communication time in the classroom-based form. The most significant feature of the communication pattern is the greater quantity of individual communication between student and teacher in the distance education format. Both the quantity and type of the communication in each of these modes suggest that the more communication-rich distance education format has greater potential for overcoming the problems of educational distance within this module.

Despite the growing need for strong communication skills in the workplace, many nursing students complete their education and still have significant blind spots for their own interpersonal weaknesses. This article describes an innovative approach for promoting insight into communication styles through the use of small-group online discussions. An outline of the instructional strategy is provided along with examples of student work. Future directions for online assignments are discussed.

Clinical teachers make a necessary and valuable contribution to clinical nursing courses with non-RN learners. This contribution is often not considered necessary in degree nursing programs with an RN student population. This study describes the perceptions of RN students and the importance they attach to certain clinical teacher behaviors. Fifty-six participants in a distance education baccalaureate nursing program completed a questionnaire, including a rating scale and open-ended questions. Based on the mean values, items were ranked in importance. Sample quotes were provided to elaborate on the highest and lowest-ranked items. Participants rated the four categories in descending order of importance: Evaluation, Professional Competence, Interpersonal Relationships, and Teaching Ability. The top items gave the profile of a teacher who is approachable, fair, open, honest, and who creates mutual respect. The findings support a clinical teacher for RN learners. The data also reflect similarities and differences with findings of studies with non-RN student participants. The findings of this study provide information, not available in the literature, regarding clinical teacher behaviors of significance to RN students.

This study examined personal attitudes of 152 Bachelors of Science in Nursing (BSN), registered nurse (RN) to BSN, and master's students enrolled in a school of nursing in the southwestern United States toward culturally diverse patients and their perceived knowledge of specific cultural practices and culture-specific skills. Three instruments were used to collect data: the Ethnic Attitude Scale-Part I, the Transcultural Questionnaire, and a demographic survey. Findings reveal that students in all three programs had a relatively low knowledge base about specific cultural groups. The only statistically significant difference found in attitudes, perceived knowledge of cultural patterns, or perceived cultural skills by program was the slightly higher perceived ability of generic BSN students to distinguish between concepts such as ethnocentrism and discrimination, intra- and intercultural diversity, and ethnicity and culture. Similar to other studies of measurement of provider attitudes and perceived cultural knowledge, the results of this study reinforce the struggle experienced by educators and the challenges faced by health care administrators grappling with teaching and delivering culturally competent care. The findings imply that nurse educators need to examine alternate models and teaching strategies to move students along the continuum of cultural learning., (Copyright 2001 by W.B. Saunders Company)

Sixteen RN-to-BSN students participated in interviews at the start and at the completion of taking their first class from a newly implemented, university-based, collaborative distance learning program. The purpose of the taped, semi-structured telephone interviews was to identify the support RNs experienced. Institutional themes of support that emerged were orientation programs, technical support, mentors, library resources, and prompt feedback from instructors. Non-institutional support themes focused on family, friends, peers, the workplace, and learners.

Background: The purpose of this study was to understand the influences of interactive video-conferencing technology on learning experiences of RN students studying for baccalaureate degrees via interactive distance education., Method: Data collection in this phenomenological study used open-ended questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups. Preliminary thematic analysis of questionnaires shaped open-ended questions for interviews and focus groups with learners confirmed findings., Results: Students identified themes of connecting with others, organization, negative influences, and personal factors as influential to their learning. They also identified useful teaching strategies to facilitate learning within this distance nursing education environment., Conclusion: University nursing programs using video-conferencing for distance education can foster learning by using teaching strategies that fit the technology, increase student interaction, and engage the students.

Aim: The aim of the study was to develop and promote national benchmarks for those engaged in accreditation of prior learning (APL) termed 'prior learning assessment and recognition' (PLAR) assessment in Canada, in all sectors and communities. The study objectives were to gain practitioner consensus on the development of benchmarks for APL (PLAR) across Canada; produce a guide to support the implementation of national benchmarks; make recommendations for the promotion of the national benchmarks; and distribute the guide. The study also investigated the feasibility of developing a system to confirm the competence of APL (PLAR) practitioners, based on nationally agreed benchmarks for practice., Method: A qualitative research strategy was developed, which used a benchmarking survey and focus groups as the primary research tools. These were applied to a purposive sample of APL practitioners (n = 91). The participants were identified through the use of an initial screening survey., Results: Respondents indicated that in Canada, PLAR is used in a variety of ways to assist with individual and personal growth for human resource development, the preparation of professionals and the achievement of academic credit. The findings of the focus groups are summarised using a SWOT analysis, Conclusion: The study identified that the main functions of the PLAR practitioners are to prepare individuals for assessment and conduct assessments. Although practitioners should be made aware of the potential conflicts in undertaking combined roles, they should be encouraged to develop confidence in both functions.

Although there are multiple ways of achieving baccalaureate-level nursing education, all graduates must demonstrate critical thinking abilities to practice competently. The purpose of this study was to measure the changes in critical thinking abilities of students pursuing various pathways in the same baccalaureate nursing curriculum. Traditional, registered nurse-bachelor of science (RN-BSN), and accelerated students completed the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA) at the beginning and end of their nursing course sequence. Findings revealed a significant difference between the pre- and post-WGCTA scores of traditional students (t = -2.84, P = .007) and RN-BSN students (t = -2.28, P = .029), but not of accelerated students. Similarities between the curricular pathways that could account for the results were analyzed. Further research is needed to determine the best combination of liberal arts and nursing courses for the development of critical thinking abilities.

Potential students need to make informed choices when undertaking further study. Potential students should access different sorts of information regarding the institution of their choice. Potential students need to be aware of how service needs influence the choices available. Potential students should have a clear idea of what they are aiming for. Potential students should be aware of the differences between similar courses.