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Wheat blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae Triticum (MoT) pathotype, is one of the most important yield-reducing diseases of wheat, mainly in the tropical wheat-growing regions of South America. In this study, we assessed the effects of nitrogen (N) fertilization on wheat blast epidemics. Factorial experiments were carried out in Londrina (2015 and 2016) and Floresta (two sowings in 2017) with N rates (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha for the first experiment, and 0, 60 and 120 kg/ha for the second) and wheat genotypes (three and six cultivars, for the first and second experiments, respectively) as factors. Wheat blast on spikes occurred only in two out of four experiments: 2015 in Londrina and first sowing of 2017 in Floresta. Nitrogen increased blast severity in the first crop of 2017 in Floresta, where blast severity on spikes ranged from 10 to 94% and yield ranged from 47 to 2823 kg/ha, depending on N rate and genotype. Nitrogen did not affect wheat blast (except for genotype S1) in the 2015 Londrina trial, where blast severity on spikes ranged from 16.9 to 36.8%. Differences in blast severity among genotypes were likely due to different crop heading periods. Our results suggest that N fertilization and sowing time should be considered in a management strategy for reducing the risk of wheat blast epidemics.

Understanding the spatial variability of soil fertility is necessary for preventing nutrient losses or excessive agricultural inputs. The aim of this research was to evaluate the spatial variability of the chemical characteristics of a Typic Hapludox cultivated with soybean for 110 days at different depths and the impacts of these characteristics on crop yield. Soil samples were collected at a total of 80 points in an area of 5000 m2 . The contents of P, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn were analyzed, in addition to pH and H+Al. The data were evaluated through descriptive statistics and geostatistical tools, and kriging maps were made based on semivariogram adjustments. Most of the soil fertility variables showed moderate or strong spatial dependence. The statistical moments obtained for the distributions showed that the symmetry of the distributions allowed the use of geostatistics techniques. In general, the greater the soil depth was, the lower the nutrient levels were. The soybean yield range (29.5 m) was similar to the P range in the 0.0-0.20 m soil layer (29.2 m). P influenced the soybean yield the most, as expressed by the similarity between the two kriging maps. In regions with more phosphorus at deeper soil layers, higher soybean yields were obtained.

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Although opening a narrow furrow for seed placement and fertilizer application is the only mechanical disturbance in soils under no-till (NT) production systems, the persistence of effects associated with that disturbance on physical properties throughout the growing season has not been widely quantified. This study tested the hypotheses that soil physical properties within the row (R) differ from those in the interrow (IR) zone under long-term NT, and that the disturbance effects on soil in the R zone persist during the soybean ( Glycine max ) growing season. The objective of this study was to determine soil physical properties under R and IR zones under NT soybean. Thirty undisturbed samples in each zone were obtained during the growth cycle at 15, 52 and 115 days after sowing. Soil properties monitored were bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), soil water content and air-filled porosity at field capacity (FC and ea, respectively), air permeability (Ka), pore continuity index (K1) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). There were significant differences in all soil physical properties among R and IR zones when measured 15 days after sowing (DAS). At the 52 and 115 DAS samplings, K1 and Ksat did not differ between R and IR positions, but significant differences persisted for BD, FC, ea, Ka and TP. BD in R and IR remained different during the soybean growing season. Despite that, the large difference for BD found in 15DAS (1.34 and 1.04 Mg m −3 for IR and R, respectively), tended to disappear, resulting in values of 1.15 and 1.07 Mg m −3 for IR and R at 115DAS, respectively. A long-term NT soil thus had different physical properties at R versus IR over a short term after sowing. Soil resilience was evident even over a short term, improving soil physical quality at IR position. The large contrast in soil physical parameters between R and IR positions was observed right after sowing, gradually decreasing over time and no longer being detectable by the end of the growing season.

The least limiting water range (LLWR) has been used as an indicator of soil physical quality as it represents, in a single parameter, the soil physical properties directly linked to plant growth, with the exception of temperature. The usual procedure for obtaining the LLWR involves determination of the water retention curve (WRC) and the soil resistance to penetration curve (SRC) in soil samples with undisturbed structure in the laboratory. Determination of the WRC and SRC using field measurements (in situ ) is preferable, but requires appropriate instrumentation. The objective of this study was to determine the LLWR from the data collected for determination of WRC and SRC in situ using portable electronic instruments, and to compare those determinations with the ones made in the laboratory. Samples were taken from the 0.0-0.1 m layer of a Latossolo Vermelho distrófico (Oxisol). Two methods were used for quantification of the LLWR: the traditional, with measurements made in soil samples with undisturbed structure; and in situ , with measurements of water content (θ), soil water potential (Ψ), and soil resistance to penetration (SR) through the use of sensors. The in situ measurements of θ, Ψ and SR were taken over a period of four days of soil drying. At the same time, samples with undisturbed structure were collected for determination of bulk density (BD). Due to the limitations of measurement of Ψ by tensiometer, additional determinations of θ were made with a psychrometer (in the laboratory) at the Ψ of -1500 kPa. The results show that it is possible to determine the LLWR by the θ, Ψ and SR measurements using the suggested approach and instrumentation. The quality of fit of the SRC was similar in both strategies. In contrast, the θ and Ψ in situ measurements, associated with those measured with a psychrometer, produced a better WRC description. The estimates of the LLWR were similar in both methodological strategies. The quantification of LLWR in situ can be achieved in 10 % of the time required for the traditional method. O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) tem sido utilizado como indicador de qualidade física do solo por representar em um único parâmetro as propriedades físicas diretamente ligadas com o crescimento de plantas, exceto a temperatura. O procedimento usual para obter o IHO envolve a determinação, em amostras com estrutura preservada e em laboratório, da curva de retenção de água (CRA) e da curva de resistência do solo à penetração (CRS). A determinação da CRA e CRS utilizando medições realizadas no campo (in situ ) é preferível, mas exige instrumentação apropriada. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram determinar o IHO a partir de dados coletados para obter a CRA e CRS in situ, utilizando instrumentos eletrônicos portáteis, e comparar essas com determinações feitas em laboratório. As amostragens foram realizadas na camada de 0,0-0,1 m de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico. Foram utilizados dois métodos de quantificação do IHO: o tradicional, com medições realizadas em amostras de solo com estrutura preservada e in situ , com medições do conteúdo de água (θ), do potencial mátrico (Ψ) e da resistência do solo à penetração (RP) por meio de sensores. As medições in situ de θ, Ψ e RP foram realizadas durante um perνodo de quatro dias de secamento do solo. Concomitantemente, foram tomadas amostras com estrutura preservada para a determinação da densidade do solo (Ds). Em razão dos limites de medida do Ψ pelo tensiômetro, foram realizadas determinações adicionais do conteúdo de água no Ψ de -1500 kPa com um psicrômetro (em laboratório). Os resultados evidenciaram que é possível determinar o IHO a partir de medições de θ, Ψ e RP, usando a abordagem e instrumentaηão sugeridas. A qualidade do ajuste da CRS foi semelhante nas duas estratégias. No entanto, as medições de θ e Ψ in situ , associadas àquelas realizadas com psicrômetro, produziram melhor descrição da CRA. As estimativas do IHO foram semelhantes nas duas estratégias metodológicas. A quantificação do IHO in situ pode ser realizada com redução de 90 % do tempo em relação ao método tradicionalmente utilizado.

The hypothesis of this study was that the absence of soil tillage in long-term no-tillage (NT) systems can be detrimental to soil aeration. The objective was to assess the aeration condition of an Oxisol (Rhodic Ferrasol), very clayey texture (750 g kg-1 of clay; 200 g kg-1 of sand), after 30 years of cultivation under NT. The physical property soil air permeability (Ka) is sensitive to changes in the soil pore system. Aside from Ka, the air-filled porosity (ε a) and indices of pore continuity (K1 and N), derived from the relationship between Ka and εa, were used as indices of soil aeration. From the soil layers 0.0-0.1 and 0.1-0.2 m, 240 undisturbed samples were collected along a transect perpendicular to the crop rows, at three sampling positions: corn plant row (CR); center of the interrow (INT); and the equidistant point between CR and INT (PE). The properties Ka and εa were determined at soil matric potentials (Ψm) of -2, -4, -6, -10, -30, and -50 kPa. Soil bulk density (BD) was also determined. The results confirmed the hypothesis. In the 0.0-0.1 m layer, Ka, K1, N and Ψa were significantly greater and BD significantly lower in CR than at the other sampling positions. At a Ψm of -10 kPa, the Ka of CR was 6.9 and 8.4 times higher than in PE and INT, respectively, in the 0.0-0.1 m layer. The properties Ka, K1 and N were sensitive enough to detect changes in the pore system and their differences between the sampling positions demonstrated the importance of the spatial location for soil sampling. Tilling the crop rows provides better soil aeration under NT. A hipótese deste estudo foi que a ausência de revolvimento do solo em sistema plantio direto (SPD) pode ser prejudicial à aeração do solo. O objetivo foi quantificar a condição de aeração de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico, classe textural muito argiloso (750 g kg-1 de argila; e 200 g kg-1 de areia), cultivado por 30 anos em SPD. A permeabilidade do solo ao ar (Ka) é um atributo físico do solo sensível às alterações no sistema poroso do solo. Ka, porosidade de aeração (εa) e índices de continuidade de poros (K1 e N), obtidos de relações entre Ka e εa, foram utilizados como indicadores da aeração do solo. Para o estudo, 240 amostras com estrutura preservada foram coletadas das camadas de 0,0-0,1 e 0,1-0,2 m de profundidade do solo, ao longo de um transecto estabelecido perpendicularmente às linhas de cultivo, em três posições distintas: linha da cultura do milho (CR); centro da entrelinha (INT); e ponto equidistante entre CR e INT (PE). A Ka e a εa foram determinadas nos potenciais mátricos (Ψm) de -2, -4, -6, -10, -30 e -50 kPa. A densidade do solo também foi definida. Os resultados confirmaram a hipótese estabelecida. Valores de Ka, K1, N e Ψa foram estatisticamente superiores na posição CR, na camada de 0,0-0,1 m. No Ψm de -10 kPa, a Ka da CR foi 6,9 e 8,4 vezes superior que em PE e INT, respectivamente, na camada de 0,0-0,1 m. Ka, K1 e N se apresentaram suficientemente sensíveis para detectar as alterações no sistema poroso, e suas diferenças entre as posições de amostragem comprovaram a importância da variabilidade espacial na obtenção de amostras de solo. A mobilização do solo na linha de semeadura propicia melhores condições de aeração do solo sob SPD.

O intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) é definido pela amplitude do teor de água (θ) no solo em que são mínimas as limitações ao crescimento vegetal, associadas à disponibilidade de água, aeração e resistência do solo à penetração (RP). Em geral, a determinação do IHO exige equipamentos de elevado custo, sendo laboriosa a obtenção dos dados de retenção de água e RP. O uso de membranas de pressão e placas porosas de Richards exige longo tempo para definir a curva de retenção de água no solo (CRA) em função do tempo de equilíbrio hidráulico, o qual depende das dimensões da amostra, do tipo de solo e da pressão aplicada. Atualmente, há disponibilidade de equipamentos para determinar o potencial de água do solo (ψ) com rapidez e menor custo como tensiômetros e equipamentos psicrométricos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar o IHO a partir do secamento de amostras indeformadas de solo em estufa elétrica com ventilação de ar e temperatura de 40 ºC (tempos de secamento de 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 180, 240, 300, 360 e 420 min), com subsequentes medições de ψ, utilizando tensiômetro ou psicrômetro, e medidas de RP, usando um penetrômetro eletrônico com aquisição automatizada de dados. A CRA e a curva de resistência do solo à penetração (CRS) foram adequadamente descritas utilizando o método proposto, que permitiu obter dados de θ e de RP em 10 dias e possibilitou ajuste acurado dos dados para descrever o IHO e alcançar a densidade crítica do solo (Dsc). The least limiting water range (LLWR) is defined by the amplitude of the water content (θ) in the soil in which limitations to plant growth associated with water availability, aeration and soil resistance to penetration (SR) are minimal. In general, LLWR determination requires expensive equipment, and obtaining water retention and SR data is laborious. The use of pressure membranes and Richards' pressure plates requires a long time to determine the water retention curve (WRC) due to the need for achieving hydrostatic equilibrium, which depends on the dimensions of the sample, the soil type and the pressure applied. Currently, equipment is available for quickly and more cheaply determining water potential (ψ), such as automatic tensiometers and psychrometric equipment. The aim of this study was to evaluate a method for quantifying the LLWR from the drying of undisturbed samples in an electric laboratory oven with air circulation and temperature of 40 ºC (drying times of 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 180, 240, 300, 360 and 420 min), with subsequent measurements of ψ using a tensiometer or psychrometer, and SR measurements using an electronic penetrometer with automated data acquisition. The WRC and the soil resistance to penetration curve were adequately described using the proposed method which allowed θ and SR data to be obtained in 10 days and allowed accurate fitting of the data to describe the LLWR and to obtain the critical bulk density of the soil.

Understanding the spatial behavior of soil physical properties under no-tillage system (NT) is required for the adoption and maintenance of a sustainable soil management system. The aims of this study were to quantify soil bulk density (BD), porosity in the soil macropore domain (PORp) and in the soil matrix domain (PORm), air capacity in the soil matrix (ACm), field capacity (FC), and soil water storage capacity (FC/TP) in the row (R), interrow (IR), and intermediate position between R and IR (designated IP) in the 0.0-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m soil layers under NT; and to verify if these soil properties have systematic variation in sampling positions related to rows and interrows of corn. Soil sampling was carried out in transect perpendicular to the corn rows in which 40 sampling points were selected at each position (R, IR, IP) and in each soil layer, obtaining undisturbed samples to determine the aforementioned soil physical properties. The influence of sampling position on systematic variation of soil physical properties was evaluated by spectral analysis. In the 0.0-0.1 m layer, tilling the crop rows at the time of planting led to differences in BD, PORp, ACm, FC and FC/TP only in the R position. In the R position, the FC/TP ratio was considered close to ideal (0.66), indicating good water and air availability at this sampling position. The R position also showed BD values lower than the critical bulk density that restricts root growth, suggesting good soil physical conditions for seed germination and plant establishment. Spectral analysis indicated that there was systematic variation in soil physical properties evaluated in the 0.0-0.1 m layer, except for PORm. These results indicated that the soil physical properties evaluated in the 0.0-0.1 m layer were associated with soil position in the rows and interrows of corn. Thus, proper assessment of soil physical properties under NT must take into consideration the sampling positions and previous location of crop rows and interrows.

O pisoteio dos animais durante o pastejo pode compactar as camadas superficiais e comprometer a qualidade física dos solos em sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária (SILP). A hipótese deste trabalho é de que o pisoteio dos animais decorrente da intensificação do pastejo das culturas de aveia e azevém num Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico com SILP sob plantio direto reduz a qualidade física do solo. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram quantificar a densidade do solo (Ds), a porosidade de aeração (εa), a permeabilidade do solo ao ar (Ka) e a resistência do solo à penetração (RP) e estimar índices de continuidade de poros a partir das relações entre εa e a Ka. A área estudada, localizada no município de Campo Mourão - PR, foi manejada em SILP com semeadura direta de soja/milho no verão e consórcio de aveia com azevém no inverno, utilizados como forragem para o pastejo pelos animais. Os tratamentos consistiram em quatro alturas de pastejo (7, 14, 21 e 28 cm) e um tratamento controle (testemunha). Em cada tratamento foram coletadas 20 amostras com estrutura indeformada, nas profundidades de 0-7,5 e 7,5-15 cm. Não foram constatadas diferenças significativas na Ds, εa e Ka entre a testemunha e os tratamentos pastejados. Após oito anos de SILP, a Ds, a εa e a Ka não confirmaram a hipótese de que a intensificação do pisoteio animal reduz a qualidade física do solo. Contudo, a RP mostrou diferenças entre os tratamentos pastejados e a testemunha, com valores restritivos de RP até 15 cm de profundidade, sugerindo que a maior intensidade de pastejo resulta em redução da qualidade física do solo. The trampling of grazing animals can compact the surface layers and affect the physical quality of soils in crop-livestock systems (ICL). The hypothesis of this study is that increased trampling from animal grazing of oats and ryegrass reduces the soil physical quality of an Oxisol under no-tillage with ICL. The purpose of this study was to quantify bulk density (Bd), air-filled porosity (εa), soil air permeability (Ka), soil resistance to penetration (SR) and estimate an index of pore continuity from the linear relationships between εa and Ka. In the experimental area in Campo Mourao - PR, with ICL under no-tillage, soybean or corn was grown as cash crops and oat plus ryegrass as forage for grazing. The treatments were four grazing heights (7, 14, 21, and 28 cm) and an ungrazed control. From each treatment, 20 undisturbed samples were collected from the layers 0-7.5 and 7.5-15 cm. There were no significant differences in Bd, εa and Ka between the control and the grazed treatments. In the 0-7.5 cm layer, the mean Ka values were similar between treatments. After eight years of ICL, the BD, εa and Ka did not confirm the hypothesis that intensification of grazing reduces the soil physical quality. However, SR showed differences between the control and grazed treatments, with restrictive SR values down to a depth of 15 cm, suggesting that increasing the grazing intensity reduces the soil physical quality.

A qualidade física do solo é um dos fatores determinantes da sustentabilidade agronômica, econômica e ambiental no sistema plantio direto (SPD). A compactação do solo tem sido apontada como um dos fatores de redução da qualidade física em solos sob SPD. Contudo, com a utilização do SPD, pode haver o incremento de matéria orgânica do solo e o desenvolvimento de um sistema poroso contínuo e estável, que atenuam os impactos negativos da compactação. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a qualidade física de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico sob SPD durante 30 anos, utilizando o intervalo hídrico ótimo (IHO) e o grau de compactação do solo (GC). Em uma área comercial com histórico de altas produtividades sob SPD, foram coletadas amostras de solo com estrutura preservada e deformada, para determinação da densidade do solo (Ds), do IHO e do GC. As amostras com estrutura preservada foram obtidas em três posições, relativas às linhas (L), entrelinhas (E) e posição intermediária entre as linhas e entrelinhas (PI) da cultura do milho. Foram determinadas as curvas de retenção de água e resistência do solo à penetração, bem como a Ds. A amostra de solo com estrutura deformada foi usada para obter a curva de compactação, utilizando o teste de Proctor. A Dmax foi obtida a partir da curva de compactação, e o GC foi determinado pela razão entre a Ds e a Dmax. Independentemente dos limites críticos de resistência à penetração (RP), verifica-se redução do IHO com o aumento da Ds. Os maiores valores do IHO foram verificados na posição de amostragem L, e a utilização de RP crítica maior que 2,0 MPa resultou em IHO condizente com a qualidade física desse solo sob SPD de longo tempo. A Dmax foi de 1,52 kg dm-3, e o GC variou de 64 a 87 %, sendo os maiores valores obtidos nas posições E e PI. Os valores de IHO e GC obtidos neste estudo indicam que a qualidade física desse solo não é limitante à produção das culturas após 30 anos de utilização do SPD. The soil physical quality is one of the factors that determine the agronomic, economic and environmental sustainability in long-term no-tillage systems (NT). Soil compaction has been discussed as a factor that contributes to a reduction in physical quality under NT. However, the use of NT can increase soil organic matter and lead to a continuous and stable porous system that mitigates the negative impacts of compaction. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the physical quality of an Oxisol after 30 years of NT, using the least limiting water range (LLWR) and the degree of soil compaction (DC). The soil was sampled in a plantation with a history of high yields under NT. Soil samples with undisturbed and disturbed structure were collected to determine bulk density (BD), the LLWR and DC. The samples with undisturbed structure were taken from three sampling positions: from the rows (R); from the middle in-between two rows (M) and from an intermediate position (IP) between the R and M of corn plants. The water retention curve, soil resistance curve and BD were determined. The disturbed soil sample was used to obtain the compaction curve using the Proctor test. The Dmax was obtained from the compaction curve and DC was determined by the ratio between the BD and Dmax. Regardless of the critical limits of resistance to penetration (RP), there is a reduction of the LLWR with increasing BD. The highest values of LLWR were observed in the R sampling position and the use of critical RP > 2.0 MPa resulted in a LLWR consistent with the soil physical quality in long-term NT. The Dmax was 1.52 kg dm-3 and DC ranged from 64 to 87 %, with the highest values obtained from the positions M and IP. The values of LLWR and DC recorded in this study suggest that the physical quality of this soil after 30 years of NT is not limiting to crop production.