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Outbreaks of COVID-19 in humans, Dutch elm disease in forests, and highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds and poultry highlight the disruptive impacts of infectious diseases on public health, ecosystems and economies. Infectious disease dynamics often depend on environmental conditions that drive occurrence, transmission and outbreaks. Remote sensing can contribute to infectious disease research and management by providing standardized environmental data across broad spatial and temporal extents, often at no cost to the user. Here, we (i) conduct a review of primary literature to quantify current uses of remote sensing in disease ecology; and (ii) synthesize qualitative information to identify opportunities for further integration of remote sensing into disease ecology. We identify that modern advances in airborne remote sensing are enabling early detection of forest pathogens and that satellite data are most commonly used to study geographically widespread human diseases. Opportunities remain for increased use of data products that characterize vegetation, surface water and soil; provide data at high spatio-temporal and spectral resolutions; and quantify uncertainty in measurements. Additionally, combining remote sensing with animal telemetry can support decision-making for disease management by providing insights into wildlife disease dynamics. Integrating these opportunities will advance both research and management of infectious diseases.

Despite recent popularization and widespread use in modern electronic devices, LiDAR technology remains expensive for research purposes, in part due to the very high performance offered by commercially available LiDAR scanners. However, such high performance is not always needed, and the expensive price ends up making LiDAR scanners inaccessible for research projects with reduced budget, such as those in developing countries. Here we designed and built a simple ground-based LiDAR scanner, with performance sufficient to fulfil the requirements for a variety of ecological research projects, while being cheap and easy to build. We managed to assemble a LiDAR scanner under 400 USD (as of 2021), and it is simple enough to be built by personnel with minimal engineering background. We also demonstrated the quality of the resulting point clouds by scanning a test site and producing some common LiDAR products. Although not adequate for mapping large area due to its limited range, our LiDAR design is open, customizable, and can produce adequate results while costing ~1% of "low-cost" scanners available in the market. As such, our LiDAR scanner opens a world of new opportunities, particularly for projects in developing countries., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Pereira Mendes, Lim. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Microphone arrays are an essential tool in the field of bioacoustics as they provide a non-intrusive way to study animal vocalizations and monitor their movement and behavior. Microphone arrays can be used for passive localization and tracking of sound sources while analyzing beamforming or spatial filtering of the emitted sound. Studying free roaming animals usually requires setting up equipment over large areas and attaching a tracking device to the animal which may alter their behavior. However, monitoring vocalizing animals through arrays of microphones, spatially distributed over their habitat has the advantage that unrestricted/unmanipulated animals can be observed. Important insights have been achieved through the use of microphone arrays, such as the convergent acoustic field of view in echolocating bats or context-dependent functions of avian duets. Here we show the development and application of large flexible microphone arrays that can be used to localize and track any vocalizing animal and study their bio-acoustic behavior. In a first experiment with hunting pallid bats the acoustic data acquired from a dense array with 64 microphones revealed details of the bats' echolocation beam in previously unseen resolution. We also demonstrate the flexibility of the proposed microphone array system in a second experiment, where we used a different array architecture allowing to simultaneously localize several species of vocalizing songbirds in a radius of 75 m. Our technology makes it possible to do longer measurement campaigns over larger areas studying changing habitats and providing new insights for habitat conservation. The flexible nature of the technology also makes it possible to create dense microphone arrays that can enhance our understanding in various fields of bioacoustics and can help to tackle the analytics of complex behaviors of vocalizing animals., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Drawing on insights from qualitative social science research, this paper aims to prompt reflection on social, ethical and regulatory challenges faced by scientists undertaking invasive animal research in the field and propose ways of addressing these challenges to promote good care for animals and environments. In particular, we explore challenges relating to the management of (i) relationships with publics and stakeholders, who may be present at field sites or crucial to research success; (ii) ethical considerations not present in the laboratory, such as the impacts of research on populations and ecosystems; (iii) working under an array of regulations, which may operate in accordance with competing ethical principles or objectives; and (iv) relationships with regulators (especially vets), which may involve disagreements over ethics and expertise, especially because regulators may be more accustomed to overseeing research in the laboratory than the field. We argue that flexibility-at a personal and policy level-and respect for others' expertise emerged as two key ways of negotiating ethical challenges, fostering positive working relationships and promoting good care for individual animals and broader ecosystems. While our analysis focuses on the UK, we propose that many of these lessons are broadly applicable to international contexts. This article is part of the theme issue 'Measuring physiology in free-living animals (Part II)'.

Microbes govern most soil functions, but investigation of these processes at the scale of their cells has been difficult to accomplish. Here we incubate microfabricated, transparent 'soil chips' with soil, or bury them directly in the field. Both soil microbes and minerals enter the chips, which enables us to investigate diverse community interdependences, such as inter-kingdom and food-web interactions, and feedbacks between microbes and the pore space microstructures. The presence of hyphae ('fungal highways') strongly and frequently increases the dispersal range and abundance of water-dwelling organisms such as bacteria and protists across air pockets. Physical forces such as water movements, but also organisms and especially fungi form new microhabitats by altering the pore space architecture and distribution of soil minerals in the chip. We show that soil chips hold a large potential for studying in-situ microbial interactions and soil functions, and to interconnect field microbial ecology with laboratory experiments., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

The extraction of small lipophilic molecules (SLMs) in the soil-root interface that play a role in belowground ecological interactions between plants and insect herbivores was investigated. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microtubing has been shown to absorb root SLMs selectively in low-disturbance setups, where analytes were extracted from the polymer with methanol. This technique was adapted to isolate SLMs that diffuse in the vapour phase in soil and sand and under various experimental parameters, extracting with a plug of diethyl ether pushed through the length of the silicon tubing. Moisture level had a substrate-dependent effect on the recovery rate of analytes that were applied as synthetic blends of known belowground SLM semiochemicals in the media. Higher amounts of two selected SLMs, (E)-caryophyllene and (-)-thujopsene, were extracted from sand, and increased polymer and solvent volume, as well as sampling duration, resulted in more of these two SLMs recovered by extraction. It was also shown that PDMS tubes lose no extraction capacity after repeated use. The signature compound (E)-caryophyllene was successfully isolated from the rhizosphere of maize plants infested with Diabrotica v. virgifera larvae by extracting the silicon tubing with diethyl ether. Because the tubes are preconditioned to reduce the presence of contaminants, such extracts can be directly analysed by GC and GC-MS and used in electrophysiological and behavioural assays. After further modifications, non-invasive, in situ PDMS probes can be developed that extract SLMs from plant rhizosphere for the study of belowground chemical ecology processes., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Our review looks at recent advances in technologies applied to studying pollinators in the field. These include RFID, radar and lidar for detecting and tracking pollinators; wireless sensor networks (e.g. 'smart' hives); automated visual and audio monitoring systems including vision motion software for monitoring fine-scale pollinator behaviours over extended periods; and automated species identification systems based on machine learning that can vastly reduce the bottleneck in (big) data analysis. An improved e-ecology platform that leverages these tools is needed for ecologists to acquire and understand large spatiotemporal datasets, and thus inform knowledge gaps in environmental policy-making. Developing the next generation of e-ecology tools will require synergistic partnerships between academia and industry and significant investment in a cross-disciplinary scientific consortia., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

3D printing technology offers significant advantages in the development of objects and tools across an array of fields and has been implemented in an increasing number of ecological studies. As rates of degradation or chemical leaching of 3D printed models has not been well documented under environmental conditions, it is essential to examine if these objects will alter the behavior or impact the survivorship of the focal species prior to widespread implementation. Here, we explored the efficacy of using 3D printed models in coral reef behavioral research, an area of study where this form of additive manufacturing could offer significant advantages. Coral-associated blue-green chromis (Chromis viridis) individuals were exposed to natural and 3D printed coral habitats, and larval mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides) were offered 3D printed substrate as a settlement surface. Habitat association and behavioral analyses indicated that C. viridis did not discriminate or display modified behaviors between 3D printed and natural coral skeletons or between 3D printed materials. P. astreoides displayed significantly higher settlement when provided with 3D printed settlement surfaces than when provided with no settlement surface and settled at similar rates between 3D printed surfaces of differing materials. Additionally, growth and mortality of P. astreoides settled on different 3D printed surfaces did not significantly differ. Our results suggest that the 3D printed models used in this study are not inherently harmful to a coral reef fish or species of brooding coral, supporting further exploration of the benefits that these objects and others produced with additive manufacturing may offer as ecological research tools., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Pitfall traps are commonly used for the collection of terrestrial insects in ecology and biology studies; they are relatively straightforward to manufacture and there is a large variety of models described in the literature. However, they present a few drawbacks: (i) the removal and transport of the collected material are not practical; (ii) they have low resistance and durability; (iii) they fail to correctly protect the attractive bait against adverse weather conditions and scavengers, and (iv) evaporation of the liquid used inside the trap. We proposed an optimized pitfall trap design for terrestrial insect collection made from cheap and easily accessible materials. The new design allows the transfer of the collected material to the lab by removing only that part of the trap where the insects have been captured; the other part remains in its original place. Thus, the proposed trap allows easier operation since there is no need to transport water to replenish the traps after each transfer; in addition, there is less volume and weight to be carried. The trap can remain in the field for months because of the durability of its material. Furthermore, the collected material is better protected against adverse weather conditions and scavengers. Currently, an efficient and rapid sampling strategy in the field is of global interest to understand mechanisms that can contribute to the monitor changes in phenology, succession, and biodiversity.

In the past few years, miniature light-level geolocators have been developed for tracking wild bird species that were previously too small to track during their full annual cycle. Geolocators offer an exciting opportunity to study the full annual cycle for many species. However, the potential detrimental effects of carrying geolocators are still poorly understood, especially for small-bodied birds. Here, we deployed light-level geolocators on common yellowthroat warblers (Geothlypis trichas). Over two years, we monitored return rates and neighborhood demography for 40 warblers carrying a geolocator and 20 reference birds that did not carry a geolocator. We compared the two groups with long-term data from 108 unmanipulated birds breeding at the same location in previous and subsequent years. Overall, we found that individuals carrying a geolocator were less likely to return to the study site in the following year (21% to 33% returned, depending on inclusion criteria) than either contemporaneous controls (55%) or long-term controls (55%). Among birds marked with geolocators, we also detected viability selection for greater wing length, whereas this pattern was not present in control birds. Finally, in each year after geolocator deployment, inexperienced breeders colonized vacant territories and this demographic effect persisted for two years after deployment. Sexual selection and ornamentation are strongly age-dependent in this system, and behavioral data collected after geolocator deployment is likely to differ systematically from natural conditions. Clearly geolocators will continue to be useful tools, but we suggest that future studies should carefully consider the potential for biased returns and the ecological validity of behavioral data collected from geolocator marked populations., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Ecological research often involves sampling and manipulating non-model organisms that reside in heterogeneous environments. As such, ecologists often adapt techniques and ideas from industry and other scientific fields to design and build equipment, tools, and experimental contraptions custom-made for the ecological systems under study. Three-dimensional (3D) printing provides a way to rapidly produce identical and novel objects that could be used in ecological studies, yet ecologists have been slow to adopt this new technology. Here, we provide ecologists with an introduction to 3D printing., Results: First, we give an overview of the ecological research areas in which 3D printing is predicted to be the most impactful and review current studies that have already used 3D printed objects. We then outline a methodological workflow for integrating 3D printing into an ecological research program and give a detailed example of a successful implementation of our 3D printing workflow for 3D printed models of the brown anole, Anolis sagrei, for a field predation study. After testing two print media in the field, we show that the models printed from the less expensive and more sustainable material (blend of 70% plastic and 30% recycled wood fiber) were just as durable and had equal predator attack rates as the more expensive material (100% virgin plastic)., Conclusions: Overall, 3D printing can provide time and cost savings to ecologists, and with recent advances in less toxic, biodegradable, and recyclable print materials, ecologists can choose to minimize social and environmental impacts associated with 3D printing. The main hurdles for implementing 3D printing-availability of resources like printers, scanners, and software, as well as reaching proficiency in using 3D image software-may be easier to overcome at institutions with digital imaging centers run by knowledgeable staff. As with any new technology, the benefits of 3D printing are specific to a particular project, and ecologists must consider the investments of developing usable 3D materials for research versus other methods of generating those materials.

Recent advances in technology and quantitative methods have led to the emergence of a new field of study that stands to link insights of researchers from two closely related, but often disconnected disciplines: movement ecology and collective animal behaviour. To date, the field of movement ecology has focused on elucidating the internal and external drivers of animal movement and the influence of movement on broader ecological processes. Typically, tracking and/or remote sensing technology is employed to study individual animals in natural conditions. By contrast, the field of collective behaviour has quantified the significant role social interactions play in the decision-making of animals within groups and, to date, has predominantly relied on controlled laboratory-based studies and theoretical models owing to the constraints of studying interacting animals in the field. This themed issue is intended to formalize the burgeoning field of collective movement ecology which integrates research from both movement ecology and collective behaviour. In this introductory paper, we set the stage for the issue by briefly examining the approaches and current status of research in these areas. Next, we outline the structure of the theme issue and describe the obstacles collective movement researchers face, from data acquisition in the field to analysis and problems of scale, and highlight the key contributions of the assembled papers. We finish by presenting research that links individual and broad-scale ecological and evolutionary processes to collective movement, and finally relate these concepts to emerging challenges for the management and conservation of animals on the move in a world that is increasingly impacted by human activity.This article is part of the theme issue 'Collective movement ecology'., (© 2018 The Author(s).)

The earliest studies of collective animal behaviour were inspired by and conducted in the wild. Over the past decades much of the research in this field has shifted to the laboratory, combining high-resolution tracking of individuals with mathematical simulations or agent-based models. Today we are beginning to see a 're-wilding' of collective behaviour thanks to technological advances, providing researchers with the opportunity to quantify and model the heterogeneity that exists within the social groupings they study and within the environments in which these groups live. The perspective we present here aims to inspire and steer this research toward answering fundamental and outstanding behavioural and ecological questions, while also tackling pertinent conservation challenges., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Hair is a useful source of biological information. For example, the bulb can be a source of high-quality genetic material, whereas the shaft can be useful for measuring heavy metals and some hormones, such as cortisol. The stable isotope composition of hair is another valuable source of biological information. Consequently, noninvasive methods of hair sampling have become important research tools. Several hair-trapping methods have been developed for use on mammals, but these are rarely deployed on primates in part because their travel patterns can be difficult to predict and because many species are averse to novel objects in their environments. Yet if a species has a natural propensity to envision, manipulate, and withdraw extractable food resources, then a baited receptacle lined with double-sided tape may prove successful as a hair trap. Recently, researchers demonstrated the success of such a contraption with tufted capuchins, a Neotropical monkey species with a high degree of somatosensory intelligence and a proclivity for extractive foraging. Here, we replicate this method in a population of tool-using long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Our trials validate the effectiveness of the method, suggesting that it is suitable for long-tailed macaques and other extractive-foraging primates., (© 2018 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The Pacific Equatorial dry forest of Northern Peru is recognised for its unique endemic biodiversity. Although highly threatened the forest provides livelihoods and ecosystem services to local communities. As agro-industrial expansion and climatic variation transform the region, close ecosystem monitoring is essential for viable adaptation strategies. UAVs offer an affordable alternative to satellites in obtaining both colour and near infrared imagery to meet the specific requirements of spatial and temporal resolution of a monitoring system. Combining this with their capacity to produce three dimensional models of the environment provides an invaluable tool for species level monitoring. Here we demonstrate that object-based image analysis of very high resolution UAV images can identify and quantify keystone tree species and their health across wide heterogeneous landscapes. The analysis exposes the state of the vegetation and serves as a baseline for monitoring and adaptive implementation of community based conservation and restoration in the area.

Cropping systems information on explicit scales is an important but rarely available variable in many crops modeling routines and of utmost importance for understanding pests and disease propagation mechanisms in agro-ecological landscapes. In this study, high spatial and temporal resolution RapidEye bio-temporal data were utilized within a novel 2-step hierarchical random forest (RF) classification approach to map areas of mono- and mixed maize cropping systems. A small-scale maize farming site in Machakos County, Kenya was used as a study site. Within the study site, field data was collected during the satellite acquisition period on general land use/land cover (LULC) and the two cropping systems. Firstly, non-cropland areas were masked out from other land use/land cover using the LULC mapping result. Subsequently an optimized RF model was applied to the cropland layer to map the two cropping systems (2nd classification step). An overall accuracy of 93% was attained for the LULC classification, while the class accuracies (PA: producer's accuracy and UA: user's accuracy) for the two cropping systems were consistently above 85%. We concluded that explicit mapping of different cropping systems is feasible in complex and highly fragmented agro-ecological landscapes if high resolution and multi-temporal satellite data such as 5 m RapidEye data is employed. Further research is needed on the feasibility of using freely available 10-20 m Sentinel-2 data for wide-area assessment of cropping systems as an important variable in numerous crop productivity models.

The use of accelerometers has become an important part of biologging techniques for large-sized birds with accelerometer data providing information about flight mode, wing-beat pattern, behaviour and energy expenditure. Such data show that birds using much energy-saving soaring/gliding flight like frigatebirds and swifts can stay airborne without landing for several months. Successful accelerometer studies have recently been conducted also for free-flying small songbirds during their entire annual cycle. Here we review the principles and possibilities for accelerometer studies in bird migration. We use the first annual actograms (for red-backed shrike Lanius collurio) to explore new analyses and insights that become possible with accelerometer data. Actogram data allow precise estimates of numbers of flights, flight durations as well as departure/landing times during the annual cycle. Annual and diurnal rhythms of migratory flights, as well as prolonged nocturnal flights across desert barriers are illustrated. The shifting balance between flight, rest and different intensities of activity throughout the year as revealed by actogram data can be used to analyse exertion levels during different phases of the life cycle. Accelerometer recording of the annual activity patterns of individual birds will open up a new dimension in bird migration research.

Despite rapid advances and large-scale initiatives in forest mapping, reliable cross-border information about the status of forest resources in Central Asian countries is lacking. We produced consistent Central Asia forest cover (CAFC) maps based on a cost-efficient approach using multi-resolution satellite imagery from Landsat and MODIS during 2009-2011. The spectral-temporal metrics derived from 2009-2011 Landsat imagery (overall accuracy of 0.83) was used to predict sub-pixel forest cover on the MODIS scale for 2010. Accuracy assessment confirmed the validity of MODIS-based forest cover map with a normalized root-mean-square error of 0.63. A general paucity of forest resources in post-Soviet Central Asia was indicated, with 1.24% of the region covered by forest. In comparison to the CAFC map, a regional map derived from MODIS Vegetation Continuous Fields tended to underestimate forest cover, while the Global Forest Change product matched well. The Global Forest Resources Assessments, based on individual country reports, overestimated forest cover by 1.5 to 147 times, particularly in the more arid countries of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Multi-resolution imagery contributes to regionalized assessment of forest cover in the world's drylands while developed CAFC maps (available at https://data.zef.de/ ) aim to facilitate decisions on biodiversity conservation and reforestation programs in Central Asia.

Terrestrial insects in water can often delay or escape drowning by floating and swimming. However, we observed that flooding of pitfall traps baited with rotting carrion results in high overnight mortality of captured beetles and reasoned that this risk may be enhanced by microbial respiration. By assessing carrion beetle (Coleoptera: Silphidae) response to flooding, tolerance to immersion, and swimming behavior, we offer insights to this cause of death and beetle behavioral physiology. Response of buried Nicrophorus orbicollis Say to soil flooding resulted in beetles moving to the soil surface. The lethal time to 50% mortality (LT50 (immersion); mean ± 95% CI) for Nicrophorus investigator Zetterstedt, Nicrophorus marginatus F., Necrodes surinamensis F., and Thanatophilus lapponicus Herbst was 14.8 ± 2.3, 9.0 ± 3.3, 3.2 ± 1.1, and 12.1 ± 2.5 h, respectively. Swimming behavior and survival time of N. investigator was tested using yeast:sucrose (Y:S) solutions to create a eutrophic, severely hypoxic aqueous environment. LT50 (swimming) for N. investigator was 7.5 ± 1.4, 6.0 ± 1.7, and 4.2 ± 1.2 h for the low, medium, and high Y:S solutions, respectively, and >24.0 h in control treatments. Nicrophorus investigator survived nearly twice as long when completely immersed in deoxygenated water, as might occur in flooded burrows, than when swimming on the surface. We document for the first time, the rapid induction of hypoxic coma and death for a terrestrial insect from enhanced microbial activity and CO2 production of an aqueous environment, as well as suggestions on trapping protocols related to the federally endangered Nicrophorus americanus Olivier., (© The Authors 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Making forecasts about biodiversity and giving support to policy relies increasingly on large collections of data held electronically, and on substantial computational capability and capacity to analyse, model, simulate and predict using such data. However, the physically distributed nature of data resources and of expertise in advanced analytical tools creates many challenges for the modern scientist. Across the wider biological sciences, presenting such capabilities on the Internet (as "Web services") and using scientific workflow systems to compose them for particular tasks is a practical way to carry out robust "in silico" science. However, use of this approach in biodiversity science and ecology has thus far been quite limited., Results: BioVeL is a virtual laboratory for data analysis and modelling in biodiversity science and ecology, freely accessible via the Internet. BioVeL includes functions for accessing and analysing data through curated Web services; for performing complex in silico analysis through exposure of R programs, workflows, and batch processing functions; for on-line collaboration through sharing of workflows and workflow runs; for experiment documentation through reproducibility and repeatability; and for computational support via seamless connections to supporting computing infrastructures. We developed and improved more than 60 Web services with significant potential in many different kinds of data analysis and modelling tasks. We composed reusable workflows using these Web services, also incorporating R programs. Deploying these tools into an easy-to-use and accessible 'virtual laboratory', free via the Internet, we applied the workflows in several diverse case studies. We opened the virtual laboratory for public use and through a programme of external engagement we actively encouraged scientists and third party application and tool developers to try out the services and contribute to the activity., Conclusions: Our work shows we can deliver an operational, scalable and flexible Internet-based virtual laboratory to meet new demands for data processing and analysis in biodiversity science and ecology. In particular, we have successfully integrated existing and popular tools and practices from different scientific disciplines to be used in biodiversity and ecological research.

Photochemical technology with microfluidics is emerging as a new platform in environmental science. Microfluidic technology has various advantages, like better mixing and a shorter diffusion distance for the reactants and products; and uniform distribution of light on the photocatalyst. Depending on the material type and related applications, several fabrication techniques have been adopted by various researchers. Microreactors have been prepared by various techniques, such as lithography, etching, mechanical microcutting technology, etc. Lithography can be classified into photolithography, soft lithography and X-ray lithography techniques whereas the etching process is divided into wet etching (chemical etching) and dry etching (plasma etching) techniques. Several substrates, like polymers, such as polydimethyl-siloxane (PDMS), polymethyle-methacrylate (PMMA), hydrogel, etc.; metals, such as stainless steel, titanium foil, etc.; glass, such as silica capillary, glass slide, etc.; and ceramics have been used for microchannel fabrication. During degradation in a microreactor, the degradation efficiency is affected by few important parameters such as flow rate, initial concentration of the target compound, microreactor dimensions, light intensity, photocatalyst structure and catalyst support. The present paper discusses and critically reviews fabrication techniques and substrates used for microchannel fabrication and critical operating parameters for organics, especially dye degradation in the microreactor. The kinetics of degradation has also been discussed.

Previous studies of microbially mediated methane oxidation in oceanic environments have examined the many different factors that control the rates of oxidation. However, there is debate on what factor(s) are limiting in these types of environments. These factors include the availability of methane, O2, trace metals, nutrients, the density of cell population, and the influence that CO2 production may have on pH. To look at this process in its entirety, we developed an automated mesocosm incubation system with a Dissolved Gas Analysis System (DGAS) coupled to a myriad of analytical tools to monitor chemical changes during methane oxidation. Here, we present new high temporal resolution techniques for investigating dissolved methane and carbon dioxide concentrations and stable isotopic dynamics during aqueous mesocosm and pure culture incubations. These techniques enable us to analyze the gases dissolved in solution and are nondestructive to both the liquid media and the analyzed gases enabling the investigation of a mesocosm or pure culture experiment in a completely closed system, if so desired.

The loss, fragmentation and degradation of habitat everywhere on Earth prompts increasing attention to identifying landscape features that support animal movement (corridors) or impedes it (barriers). Most algorithms used to predict corridors assume that animals move through preferred habitat either optimally (e.g. least cost path) or as random walkers (e.g. current models), but neither extreme is realistic. We propose that corridors and barriers are two sides of the same coin and that animals experience landscapes as spatiotemporally dynamic corridor-barrier continua connecting (separating) functional areas where individuals fulfil specific ecological processes. Based on this conceptual framework, we propose a novel methodological approach that uses high-resolution individual-based movement data to predict corridor-barrier continua with increased realism. Our approach consists of two innovations. First, we use step selection functions (SSF) to predict friction maps quantifying corridor-barrier continua for tactical steps between consecutive locations. Secondly, we introduce to movement ecology the randomized shortest path algorithm (RSP) which operates on friction maps to predict the corridor-barrier continuum for strategic movements between functional areas. By modulating the parameter Ѳ, which controls the trade-off between exploration and optimal exploitation of the environment, RSP bridges the gap between algorithms assuming optimal movements (when Ѳ approaches infinity, RSP is equivalent to LCP) or random walk (when Ѳ → 0, RSP → current models). Using this approach, we identify migration corridors for GPS-monitored wild reindeer (Rangifer t. tarandus) in Norway. We demonstrate that reindeer movement is best predicted by an intermediate value of Ѳ, indicative of a movement trade-off between optimization and exploration. Model calibration allows identification of a corridor-barrier continuum that closely fits empirical data and demonstrates that RSP outperforms models that assume either optimality or random walk. The proposed approach models the multiscale cognitive maps by which animals likely navigate real landscapes and generalizes the most common algorithms for identifying corridors. Because suboptimal, but non-random, movement strategies are likely widespread, our approach has the potential to predict more realistic corridor-barrier continua for a wide range of species., (© 2015 The Authors. Journal of Animal Ecology © 2015 British Ecological Society.)

Ovitraps are regarded as a reliable system to monitor Aedes albopictus dynamics. However, the dimensions of the oviposition substrate are not standardized, and no studies have investigated which should be the most effective sizes. In this study, the effect of paddle sizes in tiger mosquito egg collection was evaluated. Egg count and density on the wide surfaces and margins of different-sized oviposition substrates have been evaluated in two studies (A and B). In study A, a total of 29,995 Ae. albopictus eggs was counted in 250 classic oviposition substrates. Eggs were found on both wide surfaces (53.1%) and margins (46.9%). Egg density was significantly larger in margins compared to wide surfaces. Overall in study B, 983 Ae. albopictus eggs were collected. According to paddle sizes, 51.8% of eggs were on large and 48.2% on small paddles. Mean egg density of wide surfaces was significantly larger in small paddles (0.25 eggs/cm(2) ) compared to large paddles (0.06 eggs/cm(2) ). Results indicate that wider oviposition substrates do not mean larger number of Ae. albopictus eggs. Indeed, on paddles four times thinner than others, the number of eggs counted was not statistically different. These findings suggest that small paddles may be routinely employed in ovitraps, thus allowing savings of materials and money., (© 2015 The Society for Vector Ecology.)

For ecologists, understanding the reaction of animals to environmental changes is critical. Using networked sensor technology to measure wildlife and environmental parameters can provide accurate, real-time and comprehensive data for monitoring, research and conservation of wildlife. This paper reviews: (i) conventional detection technology; (ii) concepts and applications of the Internet of Things (IoT) in animal ecology; and (iii) the advantages and disadvantages of IoT. The current theoretical limits of IoT in animal ecology are also discussed. Although IoT offers a new direction in animal ecological research, it still needs to be further explored and developed as a theoretical system and applied to the appropriate scientific frameworks for understanding animal ecology., (© 2015 International Society of Zoological Sciences, Institute of Zoology/Chinese Academy of Sciences and Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.)

Squirrel monkeys (genus Saimiri) are agile, arboreal primates that are seldom captured in the wild due to their small body size (<1 kg) and large, non-cohesive social groups (40-50 individuals). However, long-term studies on these primates often require captures and permanent identification of individuals, in order to monitor their behavior and health. Here we report on a novel trapping method successfully used to capture Saimiri collinsi, in Eastern Amazonia, Brazil. Our objective was to capture as many individuals as possible from one social group of approximately 50 individuals, ranging over 150 ha of terra firme forest. Captures occurred in November and December 2013. We habituated animals to feed on a large platform located in a 123.5 m(2) area enclosed by a green net (3 m high). Multiple individuals could freely enter and exit the area via four ropes affixed from surrounding trees to the platform. Once individuals were feeding inside the netted area on selected trapping days, the ropes were dropped remotely, eliminating their escape routes. We successfully trapped 21 different individuals of the social group (14 adults and 7 immatures) with this method. We conclude that this is a conceptually simple, effective method for trapping squirrel monkeys in most habitats, and possibly other small arboreal primates that live in large social groups. The present method was more effective than previous methods utilized to capture squirrel monkeys in the field, and has the advantages of: allowing for safe capture of several individuals simultaneously; enabling re-captures; releasing of animals as a group at the site of capture; use of soft netting which facilitates safe capture of the monkeys., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Plant canopy interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) drives carbon dioxide (CO2), water and energy cycling in the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Quantifying intercepted PAR requires accurate measurements of total incident PAR above canopies and direct beam and diffuse PAR components. While some regional data sets include these data, e.g. from Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program sites, they are not often applicable to local research sites because of the variable nature (spatial and temporal) of environmental variables that influence incoming PAR. Currently available instrumentation that measures diffuse and direct beam radiation separately can be cost prohibitive and require frequent adjustments. Alternatively, generalized empirical relationships that relate atmospheric variables and radiation components can be used but require assumptions that increase the potential for error. Our goal here was to construct and test a cheaper, highly portable instrument alternative that could be used at remote field sites to measure total, diffuse and direct beam PAR for extended time periods without supervision. The apparatus tested here uses a fabricated, solar powered rotating shadowband and other commercially available parts to collect continuous hourly PAR data. Measurements of total incident PAR had nearly a one-to-one relationship with total incident radiation measurements taken at the same research site by an unobstructed point quantum sensor. Additionally, measurements of diffuse PAR compared favorably with modeled estimates from previously published data, but displayed significant differences that were attributed to the important influence of rapidly changing local environmental conditions. The cost of the system is about 50% less than comparable commercially available systems that require periodic, but not continual adjustments. Overall, the data produced using this apparatus indicates that this instrumentation has the potential to support ecological research via a relatively inexpensive method to collect continuous measurements of total, direct beam and diffuse PAR in remote locations.

Hemispherical photography is a well-established method to optically assess ecological parameters related to plant canopies; e.g. ground-level light regimes and the distribution of foliage within the crown space. Interpreting hemispherical photographs involves classifying pixels as either sky or vegetation. A wide range of automatic thresholding or binarization algorithms exists to classify the photographs. The variety in methodology hampers ability to compare results across studies. To identify an optimal threshold selection method, this study assessed the accuracy of seven binarization methods implemented in software currently available for the processing of hemispherical photographs. Therefore, binarizations obtained by the algorithms were compared to reference data generated through a manual binarization of a stratified random selection of pixels. This approach was adopted from the accuracy assessment of map classifications known from remote sensing studies. Percentage correct (Pc) and kappa-statistics (K) were calculated. The accuracy of the algorithms was assessed for photographs taken with automatic exposure settings (auto-exposure) and photographs taken with settings which avoid overexposure (histogram-exposure). In addition, gap fraction values derived from hemispherical photographs were compared with estimates derived from the manually classified reference pixels. All tested algorithms were shown to be sensitive to overexposure. Three of the algorithms showed an accuracy which was high enough to be recommended for the processing of histogram-exposed hemispherical photographs: "Minimum" (Pc 98.8%; K 0.952), "Edge Detection" (Pc 98.1%; K 0.950), and "Minimum Histogram" (Pc 98.1%; K 0.947). The Minimum algorithm overestimated gap fraction least of all (11%). The overestimation by the algorithms Edge Detection (63%) and Minimum Histogram (67%) were considerably larger. For the remaining four evaluated algorithms (IsoData, Maximum Entropy, MinError, and Otsu) an incompatibility with photographs containing overexposed pixels was detected. When applied to histogram-exposed photographs, these algorithms overestimated the gap fraction by at least 180%.

Ecosystem surveys are carried out annually in the Barents Sea by Russia and Norway to monitor the spatial distribution of ecosystem components and to study population dynamics. One component of the survey is mapping the upper pelagic zone using a trawl towed at several depths. However, the current technique with a single codend does not provide fine-scale spatial data needed to directly study species overlaps. An in-trawl camera system, Deep Vision, was mounted in front of the codend in order to acquire continuous images of all organisms passing. It was possible to identify and quantify of most young-of-the-year fish (e.g. Gadus morhua, Boreogadus saida and Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and zooplankton, including Ctenophora, which are usually damaged in the codend. The system showed potential for measuring the length of small organisms and also recorded the vertical and horizontal positions where individuals were imaged. Young-of-the-year fish were difficult to identify when passing the camera at maximum range and to quantify during high densities. In addition, a large number of fish with damaged opercula were observed passing the Deep Vision camera during heaving; suggesting individuals had become entangled in meshes farther forward in the trawl. This indicates that unknown numbers of fish are probably lost in forward sections of the trawl and that the heaving procedure may influence the number of fish entering the codend, with implications for abundance indices and understanding population dynamics. This study suggests modifications to the Deep Vision and the trawl to increase our understanding of the population dynamics.

Human activities are increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature. Related to this global warming, periods of low water availability are also expected to increase. Thus, CO2 concentration, temperature and water availability are three of the main factors related to climate change that potentially may influence crops and ecosystems. In this report, we describe the use of growth chamber - greenhouses (GCG) and temperature gradient greenhouses (TGG) to simulate climate change scenarios and to investigate possible plant responses. In the GCG, CO2 concentration, temperature and water availability are set to act simultaneously, enabling comparison of a current situation with a future one. Other characteristics of the GCG are a relative large space of work, fine control of the relative humidity, plant fertirrigation and the possibility of light supplementation, within the photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) region and/or with ultraviolet-B (UV-B) light. In the TGG, the three above-mentioned factors can act independently or in interaction, enabling more mechanistic studies aimed to elucidate the limiting factor(s) responsible for a given plant response. Examples of experiments, including some aimed to study photosynthetic acclimation, a phenomenon that leads to decreased photosynthetic capacity under long-term exposures to elevated CO2, using GCG and TGG are reported., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Locating sites for new algae cultivation facilities is a complex task. The climate must support high growth rates, and cultivation ponds require appropriate land and water resources, as well as transportation and utility infrastructure. We employ our spatiotemporal Biomass Assessment Tool (BAT) to select promising locations based on the open-pond cultivation of Arthrospira sp. and strains of the order Sphaeropleales. A total of 64,000 sites across the southern United States were evaluated. We progressively applied screening criteria and tracked their impact on the number of potential sites, geographic location, and biomass productivity. Both strains demonstrated maximum productivity along the Gulf of Mexico coast, with the highest values on the Florida peninsula. In contrast, sites meeting all selection criteria for Arthrospira were located along the southern coast of Texas and for Sphaeropleales were located in Louisiana and southern Arkansas. Results were driven mainly by the lack of oil pipeline access in Florida and elevated groundwater salinity in southern Texas. The requirement for low-salinity freshwater (<400 mg L(-1)) constrained Sphaeropleales locations; siting flexibility is greater for salt-tolerant species like Arthrospira. Combined siting factors can result in significant departures from regions of maximum productivity but are within the expected range of site-specific process improvements.

Sleeve cages for enclosing or excluding arthropods are essential components of field studies evaluating trophic interactions. Microclimatic variation in sleeve cages was evaluated to characterize its potential effects on subsequent long-term experiments. Two sleeve cage materials, polyester and nylon, and two cage sizes, 400 and 6000 cm(2), were tested on eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière. Temperature and relative humidity inside and outside cages, and the cost and durability of the cage materials, were compared. Long-term effects of the sleeve cages were observed by measuring new growth on T. canadensis branches. The ultimate goal was to identify a material that minimizes bag-induced microclimatic variation. Bagged branches whose microclimates mimic those of surrounding unbagged branches should have minimal effects on plant growth and may prove ideal venues for assessing herbivore and predator behavior under natural conditions. No differences were found in temperature or humidity between caging materials. Small cages had higher average temperatures than large cages, especially in the winter, but this difference was confounded by the fact that small cages were positioned higher in trees than large cages. Differences in plant growth were detected. Eastern hemlock branches enclosed within polyester cages produced fewer new growth tips than uncaged controls. Both polyester and nylon cages reduced the length of new shoot growth relative to uncaged branches. In spite of higher costs, nylon cages were superior to polyester with respect to durability and ease of handling., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Entomological Society of America.)

Grand challenges in global change research and environmental science raise the need for replicated experiments on ecosystems subjected to controlled changes in multiple environmental factors. We designed and developed the Ecolab as a variable climate and atmosphere simulator for multifactor experimentation on natural or artificial ecosystems. The Ecolab integrates atmosphere conditioning technology optimized for accuracy and reliability. The centerpiece is a highly contained, 13-m(3) chamber to host communities of aquatic and terrestrial species and control climate (temperature, humidity, rainfall, irradiance) and atmosphere conditions (O2 and CO2 concentrations). Temperature in the atmosphere and in the water or soil column can be controlled independently of each other. All climatic and atmospheric variables can be programmed to follow dynamical trajectories and simulate gradual as well as step changes. We demonstrate the Ecolab's capacity to simulate a broad range of atmospheric and climatic conditions, their diurnal and seasonal variations, and to support the growth of a model terrestrial plant in two contrasting climate scenarios. The adaptability of the Ecolab design makes it possible to study interactions between variable climate-atmosphere factors and biotic disturbances. Developed as an open-access, multichamber platform, this equipment is available to the international scientific community for exploring interactions and feedbacks between ecological and climate systems.

The field of drug epidemiology based upon sewer sampling has only emerged in the last 10 years and has great potential to aid in drug epidemiological studies. This rapidly expanding field can provide an unbiased look into the illicit drug habits of large populations as well as specific, smaller groups. How far the field has evolved is discussed as well as where the future for these types of monitoring studies could go.

We propose a novel method to guide THz radiation with low losses along thin layers of water. This approach is based on the coupling of evanescent surface fields at the opposite sides of the thin water layer surrounded by a dielectric material, which leads to a maximum field amplitude at the interfaces and a reduction of the energy density inside the water film. In spite of the strong absorption of water in this frequency range, calculations show that the field distribution can lead to propagation lengths of several centimeters. By means of attenuated total reflection measurements we demonstrate the coupling of incident THz radiation to the long-range surface guided modes across a layer of water with a thickness of 24 μm. This first demonstration paves the way for THz sensing in aqueous environments.

This focal point review provides an overview of recent developments and capabilities of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) coupled with different separation techniques for applications in the fields of quantitative environmental and bio-analysis. Over the past years numerous technical improvements, which are highlighted in this review, have helped to promote the evolution of ICP-MS to one of the most versatile tools for elemental quantification. In particular, the benefits and possibilities of using state-of-the-art hyphenated ICP-MS approaches for quantitative analysis are demonstrated with a focus on environmental and bio-analytical applications.

Numerous methods are currently available to track animal movements. However, only one of these, dead-reckoning, has the capacity to provide continuous data for animal movements over fine scales. Dead-reckoning has been applied almost exclusively in the study of marine species, in part due to the difficulty of accurately measuring the speed of terrestrial species. In the present study we evaluate the use of accelerometers and a metric known as overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA) as a proxy for the measurement of speed for use in dead-reckoning. Data were collated from previous studies, for 10 species locomoting on a treadmill and their ODBA measured by an attached data logger. All species except one showed a highly significant linear relationship between speed and ODBA; however, there was appreciable inter- and intra-specific variance in this relationship. ODBA was then used to estimate speed in a simple trial run of a dead-reckoning track. Estimating distance travelled using speed derived from prior calibration for ODBA resulted in appreciable errors. We describe a method by which these errors can be minimised, by periodic ground-truthing (e.g., by GPS or VHF telemetry) of the dead-reckoned track and adjusting the relationship between speed and ODBA until actual known positions and dead-reckoned positions accord., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Past years have seen the development of different approaches to detect phytoplankton groups from space. One of these methods, the PHYSAT one, is empirically based on reflectance anomalies. Despite observations in good agreement with in situ measurements, the underlying theoretical explanation of the method is still missing and needed by the ocean color community as it prevents improvements of the methods and characterization of uncertainties on the inversed products. In this study, radiative transfer simulations are used in addition to in situ measurements to understand the organization of the signals used in PHYSAT. Sensitivity analyses are performed to assess the impact of the variability of the following three parameters on the reflectance anomalies: specific phytoplankton absorption, colored dissolved organic matter absorption, and particles backscattering. While the later parameter explains the largest part of the anomalies variability, results show that each group is generally associated with a specific bio-optical environment which should be considered to improve methods of phytoplankton groups detection.