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We present an extreme ultraviolet (EUV) microscope using a Schwarzschild objective which is optimized for single-shot sub-micrometer imaging of laser-plasma targets. The microscope has been designed and constructed for imaging the scattering from an EUV-heated solid-density hydrogen jet. Imaging of a cryogenic hydrogen target was demonstrated using single pulses of the free-electron laser in Hamburg (FLASH) free-electron laser at a wavelength of 13.5 nm. In a single exposure, we observe a hydrogen jet with ice fragments with a spatial resolution in the sub-micrometer range. In situ EUV imaging is expected to enable novel experimental capabilities for warm dense matter studies of micrometer-sized samples in laser-plasma experiments.

We present a detailed investigation of X-ray emission from both flat and nanowire zinc oxide targets irradiated by 60 fs 5 &times, 1016 W/cm2 intensity laser pulses at a 0.8 &micro, m wavelength. It is shown that the fluence of the emitted hard X-ray radiation in the spectral range 150&ndash, 800 keV is enhanced by at least one order of magnitude for nanowire targets compared to the emission from a flat surface, whereas the characteristic K&alpha, line emission (8.64 keV) is insensitive to the target morphology. Furthermore, we provide evidence for a dramatic increase of the fast electron flux from the front side of the nanostructured targets. We suggest that targets with nanowire morphology may advance development of compact ultrafast X-ray sources with an enhanced flux of hard X-ray emission that could find wide applications in highenergy density (HED) physics.

The spectrum of the undulator radiation of beamline P01 at Petra III has been measured after passing a multiple reflection channel-cut polarimeter. Odd and even harmonics up to the 15th order, as well as Compton peaks which were produced by the high harmonics in the spectrum, could been measured. These additional contributions can have a tremendous influence on the performance of the polarimeter and have to be taken into account for further polarimeter designs.

We present an experimental study of X-ray generation from nanostructured ZnO targets. Samples of different morphology ranging from nanowires to polished surfaces are irradiated by relativistically intense femtosecond laser pulses. X-ray emission of plasma is generated by 45 fs 130 mJ laser pulses at 400 nm with picosecond temporal contrast better than 10−9 interacting with an array of ZnO nanowires. The measured spectra indicate the existence of highly ionized states of Zn (up to He-like Zn). The obtained flux of ∼1010 photons per laser shot at the neutral Zn Kα energies around 8.65 keV and at the Zn Heα energies around 9 keV is almost 3 times higher for nanostructured targets compared to the reference polished sample and implies 10−4 conversion efficiency from the laser energy to the total energy of the emitted X-ray photons.

The exploration of the unique properties of stored and cooled beams of highly-charged ions as provided by heavy-ion storage rings has opened novel and fascinating research opportunities in the realm of atomic and nuclear physics research. Since the late 1980s, pioneering work has been performed at the CRYRING at Stockholm (Abrahamsson et al. 1993) and at the Test Storage Ring (TSR) at Heidelberg (Baumann et al. 1988). For the heaviest ions in the highest charge-states, a real quantum jump was achieved in the early 1990s by the commissioning of the Experimental Storage Ring (ESR) at GSI Helmholtzzentrum fur Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt (Franzke 1987) where challenging experiments on the electron dynamics in the strong field regime as well as nuclear physics studies on exotic nuclei and at the borderline to atomic physics were performed. Meanwhile also at Lanzhou a heavy-ion storage ring has been taken in operation, exploiting the unique research opportunities in particular for medium-heavy ions and exotic nuclei (Xia et al. 2002).

The linear polarization of the characteristic lines $L{\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{1}$ $(3{d}_{5/2}\ensuremath{\rightarrow}2{p}_{3/2})$ and $L{\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{2}$ $(3{d}_{3/2}\ensuremath{\rightarrow}2{p}_{3/2})$, following inner-shell photoionization of neutral tungsten, is analyzed both experimentally and theoretically. In the experiment, a tungsten target is photoionized by the primary emission of an x-ray tube with incident photon energies in the range of 10.2--30 keV. The $\ensuremath{\sigma}$ and $\ensuremath{\pi}$ components of the emitted fluorescence are measured by using a spectropolarimeter, based on x-ray diffraction at Bragg angles close to ${45}^{\ensuremath{\circ}}$. The degree of linear polarization of the $L{\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{1}$ and $L{\ensuremath{\alpha}}_{2}$ lines is determined to be $+(1.6\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}0.5)%$ and $\ensuremath{-}(7\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}2)%$, respectively. In addition, this degree of polarization is calculated within the framework of the density-matrix theory as a function of the incident photon energy. These calculations are in good agreement with the experimental results and show only a weak dependence of the degree of polarization on the energy of the incident photoionizing photon.

The Differential Fourier Holography (DFH) gives an exact mathematical solution of the inverse problem of diffraction in the Fraunhofer regime. After the first publication [1] the Differential Fourier Holography was successfully applied in many experiments to obtain amplitude and phase information about two-dimensional (2D) images. In this article we demonstrate numerically the possibility to apply the DFH also for investigation of unknown 3D Objects. The first simulation is made for a double-spiral structure plus a line as a reference object.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive technique for cross-sectional imaging. It is particularly advantageous for applications where conventional microscopy is not able to image deeper layers of samples in a reasonable time, e.g. in fast moving, deeper lying structures. However, at infrared and optical wavelengths, which are commonly used, the axial resolution of OCT is limited to about 1 μm, even if the bandwidth of the light covers a wide spectral range. Here, we present extreme ultraviolet coherence tomography (XCT) and thus introduce a new technique for non-invasive cross-sectional imaging of nanometer structures. XCT exploits the nanometerscale coherence lengths corresponding to the spectral transmission windows of, e.g., silicon samples. The axial resolution of coherence tomography is thus improved from micrometers to a few nanometers. Tomographic imaging with an axial resolution better than 18 nm is demonstrated for layer-type nanostructures buried in a silicon substrate. Using wavelengths in the water transmission window, nanometer-scale layers of platinum are retrieved with a resolution better than 8 nm. XCT as a nondestructive method for sub-surface tomographic imaging holds promise for several applications in semiconductor metrology and imaging in the water window.

Applied physics letters 109(12), 121106(2016). doi:10.1063/1.4962806, We report on the use of synthetic single-crystal diamonds for high purity x-ray polarimetry to improve the polarization purity of present-day x-ray polarimeters. The polarimeter setup consists of a polarizer and an analyzer, each based on two parallel diamond crystals used at a Bragg angle close to 45°. The experiment was performed using one (400) Bragg reflection on each diamond crystal and synchrotron undulator radiation at an x-ray energy of 9838.75 eV. A polarization purity of 8.9 × 10$^{−10}$ was measured at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, which is the best value reported for two-reflection polarizer/analyzer setups. This result is encouraging and is a first step to improve the resolution of x-ray polarimeters further by using diamond crystal polarizers and analyzers with four or six consecutive reflections., Published by American Inst. of Physics, Melville, NY

We investigated laser-driven ion acceleration with tightly focused femtosecond laser pulses at an intensity of 5×1019 W/cm2. Targets consisting of thin metal foils either back-coated with a μ m -thick dielectric layer or uncoated have been used. The observations we report show that proton bunches with energy in the MeV range have been produced. Furthermore, the protons emitted from back-coated targets exhibit a spatial cross-section which is remarkably more uniform and of significantly smaller size if compared with that of the protons emitted from uncoated foils. The experimental results are discussed in terms of the differences between the propagation of the fast electron current inside the back-coated and uncoated targets.

New journal of physics 20(7), 073033 (2018). doi:10.1088/1367-2630/aad01d, Published by IOP, [London]

Theory predicts that the presence of strong single-frequency electric fields results in appearance of satellite or dip structures in X-ray spectral lines emitted from hot dense plasmas. Emission from multicharged ions is measured to determine the effects of laser field. A ps-laser beam was split into two parts: the first created an expanding plasma, while the second, which was temporally synchronized, irradiated the plasma at a varying distances in a direction perpendicular to the target normal. The field introduced by the second beam perturbed the plasma environment in the vicinity of radiators. The spatially resolved X-ray spectra were recorded using the high-resolution toroidally bent crystal spectrometer combined with a CCD detector. Spectrally resolved features are observed in broadened Al Heβ line profiles that are consistent with predicted spectra. The predicted spectra are derived from a combination of hydrodynamic plasma modeling post-processed by theoretical models that include the effect of externally introduced laser fields. The possible mixing of higher-intensity fields is qualitatively explained by a combination of fluid and one-dimensional PIC simulations that indicate redistribution of the fields and density fluctuations due to a presence of parametric instabilities.

The interaction of ultrashort laser pulses with solid state targets is studied concerning the production of short X-ray pulses with photon energies up to about 10 keV. The influence of various parameters such as pulse energy, repetition rate of the laser system, focusing conditions, the application of prepulses, and the chirp of the laser pulses on the efficiency of this highly nonlinear process is examined. In order to increase the X-ray flux, the laser pulse energy is increased by a 2nd multipass amplifier from 750 μJ to 5 mJ. By applying up to 4 mJ of the pulse energy a X-ray flux of 4×1010 Fe K α photons/s or 2.75×1010 Cu K α photons/s are generated. The energy conversion efficiency is therefore calculated to η Fe≈1.4×10−5 and η Cu≈1.0×10−5. The X-ray source size is determined to 15×25 μm2. By focusing the produced X-rays using a toroidally bent crystal a quasi-monochromatic X-ray point source with a diameter of 56 μm×70μm is produced containing ≈104 Fe K α1 photons/s which permits the investigation of lattice dynamics on a picosecond or even sub-picosecond time scale. The lattice movement of a GaAs(111) crystal is shown as a typical application.

The aim of the reported research is to contribute to investigation of new processes and methods interlinking nuclear and laser-plasma physics. With respect to requirements of nuclear experiments at medium-size high-power lasers, the selection of proper candidates for studying the excitation and decay of low-lying nuclear states is reviewed. An experimental approach to the identification of low-energy nuclear transitions is discussed, simple estimates of the 181Ta excitation yield in the laser-generated plasma provide a theoretical basis for planning future work. First tests and results of the experiments at the laser facility PALS are presented.

K-shell spectra of targets with microstructured features irradiated by an intense femtosecond laser have been studied. Examination of Kα emission from laser irradiated Si targets coated with micron-scale polystyrene spheres indicates that the emission is enhanced by a factor of ∼3 over emission from planar solids. Sphere-coated targets also emit K-shell He-like Si radiation indicating the presence of a hot dense plasma beneath the microspheres. Furthermore, Kα from Ti foils coupled to micro-tipped reentrant pyramid and wedge shaped targets has been studied, however, no significant enhancement of the Kα yield is observed for these kinds of targets. These studies illustrate that, with correct tailoring of the target surface, field enhancements can be used to increase X-ray emission from intensely irradiated targets.

We describe recent measurements in which a novel imaging technique was used to investigate the transport of high energy electrons produced by the interaction of a femtosecond laser pulse with a three-layer target at an intensity of 5 × 1019 W cm−2. The imaging system was configured to work in a single-photon detection regime to identify the energy of the x-ray photons and to discriminate among Kα photons generated in each target layer. Electrons emerging from the rear side after propagation through all the target layers were also detected using a custom developed detector. The results on fast electron propagation are combined with the information obtained from electron diagnostics and are modelled using analytical and numerical codes to obtain a detailed description of electron propagation dynamics.

Laser plasma interaction experiments have been performed using an fs Titanium Sapphire laser. Plasmas have been generated from planar PMMA targets using single laser pulses with 3.3 mJ pulse energy, 50 fs pulse duration at 800 nm wavelength. The electron density distributions of the plasmas in different delay times have been characterized by means of Nomarski Interferometry. Experimental data were compared with hydrodynamic simulation. First results to characterize the plasma density and temperature as a function of space and time are obtained. This work aims to generate plasmas in the warm dense matter (WDM) regime at near solid-density in an ultra-fast laser target interaction process. Plasmas under these conditions can serve as targets to develop X-ray Thomson scattering as a plasma diagnostic tool, e.g., using the Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) free-electron laser (FLASH) at Dentsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) Hamburg.

High resolution, spatially resolved spectroscopy is used to study the interaction of a short 3.4 ps pulse laser at intensities between 1014 and 1017 W/cm2. The detailed lines shapes show a series of regular intensity modulations, or dips, across the spectral line. We present the analysis of the helium-like emission from these aluminium plasmas, and compare the Heβ transition to calculation. Assuming the intensity dips result from the interaction of quasi-monochromatic electric field of a strong plasma wave, we are able to infer the field strengths present and electron density. This suggests that the intensity dips are driven by the strong growth of laser-driven parametric instabilities at quarter critical density. The development of high resolution spectroscopy for the interpretation of parametric driven instabilities in short pulse laser-produced plasma is discussed.

International audience; The experimental investigation of quantum-electrodydamic contributions to the binding energies of inner shells of highly charged heavy ions requires an accurate spectroscopy in the region of hard x-rays suitable at a limited source strength. For this purpose the focusing compensated asymmetric Laue crystal optics has been developed and a twin-spectrometer assembly has been built and commissioned at the experimental storage ring of the GSI Helmholtzzentrum Darmstadt. We characterize the crystal optics and demonstrate the usefulness of the instrumentation for accurate spectroscopy of both stationary and fast moving x-ray sources. The experimental procedures discussed here may also be applied for other spectroscopic studies where a transition from conventional germanium x-ray detectors to crystal spectrometers seems too demanding because of low source intensity.

A new approach is proposed for X-ray dynamical diffraction theory in distorted crystals. The theory allows one to perform dynamical diffraction simulations between Bragg peaks for non-ideal crystals, using a simple approach of two distorted waves. It can be directly applied for reciprocal-space simulation. The formalism is used to analyse high-resolution X-ray diffraction data, obtained for an InSb/InGaSb/InSb/InAs superlattice grown on top of a GaSb buffer layer on a (001) GaSb substrate.

A systematic study of the Langmuir-wave-caused dips (L dips) observed in profiles of the Al Ly γ line emitted from laser irradiated sandwich targets indicates that these fine spectral features can be used as a tool for density diagnostics in intermediately coupled plasmas. The spectroscopic data required for a reliable identification of L dips were collected by a vertical-geometry Johann spectrometer providing high spectral and spatial resolution. The electron densities deduced from the evolution of the L dips along the laser target axis compare well with those derived from hydrosimulations and from measurements of the line widths and shifts.

A compact, ultrashort, laser-based hard X-ray source particularly suited for high repetition rate laser systems (>1 kHz) is presented. X rays in the keV energy range are generated efficiently with 30 fs laser pulses on different tape targets containing chromium and iron. Spectroscopic investigations showed that for the chromium as well as for the iron tapes, strong Ka and Kβ emission were observed in addition to a weak bremsstrahlung continuum. These tape targets are especially suited for applications in a transmission geometry, which provides significant advantages. The operation of the tape target was studied with repetition rates up to 10 kHz. With input pulses of 0.5 mJ and modest intensities in the low 10 15 W/cm 2 range, X-ray Kα photon fluxes exceeding 6 × 10 9 photons/s were achieved, yielding conversion efficiencies of η Kα > 10 -6 . With a toroidally bent crystal the generated radiation was monochromatized and focused to a 85-μm diameter spot demonstrating the ability of the source to act as a X-ray point source, a pre-requisite for an application in X-ray microscopy.

The structures observed in profiles of the L γ line of Al XIII emitted from the laser-produced plasma are identified as the Langmuir-wave-caused dips (L-dips). Hitherto, the L-dips were found in hydrogen and deuterium spectral lines only; we report the first experiment dedicated to their identification in higher-Z plasmas. The L-dip phenomenon has a fundamental importance as a nonlinear dynamic-resonance effect of essentially multifrequency nature. Besides, the L-dips can be practically used for measuring the amplitude of the Langmuir waves. The latter diagnostic application might be very important in future experiments with laser-produced plasmas, as no other method was suggested in the literature for this purpose yet.

Precise spectroscopic observations of K-shell emission from highly stripped Al ions immersed in dense, constrained-flow laser-produced plasma is reported. By using a vertical dispersion Johann spectrometer, the time-integrated spectra of the Al Heα group were measured with a high spectral and spatial resolution. The complex spectral profiles modified by the satellite formation, line broadening and frequency shifts were decomposed into individual pseudo-Voigt components by using a code GASPED based on a problem-dependent genetic algorithm. The method uses eight operators tailored to the problem of spectral decomposition and variable-size genomes to fit the data with a varying number of spectral lines. The spectra fitting was based on anticipatory theoretical knowledge of the satellite structure simulated by the multilevel collisional-radiative code MARIA and on an assumption of the aggregate plasma-induced shift of the parent lines and their satellites. The analysis of the spectral profiles revealed systematic red shifts of the resonance and the intercombination lines. Their magnitude is commensurate with predictions of the atomic data and spectral line shape codes combined with the 1D hydrodynamic modeling of the plasma conditions and independent electron density measurements. The results obtained corroborate the feasibility of an accurate decomposition of the spectral profiles encompassing optically thick and thin lines overlapped by a strong satellite emission.

Modification of the Schwarzschild optics for applications in hard X-ray imaging is discussed. The conditions necessary to achieve a high spatial resolution with two toroidally bent crystals in the Bragg geometry are formulated, and the focusing properties of the system are numerically simulated using the ray tracing method. It is predicted that such a system could provide a spatial resolution considerably higher than the resolution of the presently available X-ray optics.

The Borrmann effect has been demonstrated in GaAs single crystals with ultra-short X-ray bursts from laser-produced plasmas. It was switched on ns time scales in crystals of two different thicknesses. In case of the thinner crystal a change in the line profile was observed while in the thick-crystal case a dramatic drop by 50% of the line intensity occurred. The results can be qualitatively explained by dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction for slightly deformed crystals.

Theoretical design of a new type of the bent crystal spectrometer based on a combination of the vertical dispersion principle with diffraction of x rays from the asymmetrically cut crystal is reported. The novel instrument produces simultaneously two sets of mirror-symmetric spectra, and provides large dispersion, high spectral and 1D spatial resolution with a variable magnification. The analytic formulas describing the function of the spectrometer are complemented by its detailed quantitative analysis based on the ray tracing procedure. The method for reconstruction of the recorded spectra is described, the parameters influencing the precision of the wavelength determination are discussed. The comparison of the main predicted and experimentally observed characteristics verifies the developed theory and demonstrates the spectrometer performance. The novel instrument is particularly suitable for precise measurements of profiles and positions of the narrow-band spectral features observed in the emission of laser-generated plasmas.

A crystal spectrometer has been constructed in the Focusing Compensated Asymmetric Laue geometry covering the energy range between 30 and 120 keV. We summarize the crystal optics and show the usefulness of the instrument for spectroscopy of stationary and fast moving X-ray sources. Results are reported from several tests employing a 169 Yb gamma-ray source and the Lyman radiation of one-electron Au 78+ ions travelling at a velocity corresponding to β = v / c o ≈0.44.

The interaction of intense femtosecond laser pulses with wide band-gap fused silica and quartz is investigated. It is shown that during target irradiation, melting of SiO2 occurs. Laser pulses with fluences above the damage threshold induce partial phase transition of fused silicia into quartz and vice-versa.

Spectroscopic methods recently developed for the measurements of electric elds, magnetic elds, and plasma properties in various pulsed-power systems are described. The methods utilize spectroscopy of visible-UV and X-ray emission-lines and of laser radiation. They allow for non-perturbing measurements with relatively high spectral, temporal, and spatial resolutions. Spatial resolution along the line of sight is obtained by locally doping the plasma with various species whose emission is then utilized. A few methods developed for doping solid and gaseous materials are described. Results for an ion diode, nanosecond and microsecond Plasma Switches, and a pinch system are presented.

Detailed spectroscopic analysis of K-shell emission simultaneously observed at the irradiated and unirradiated surface of laser-exploded foils is reported. The space-dependent spectral line widths and relative shifts in the positions of the Al Lyman transition are interpreted in terms of the plasma density variations; the trend in the shifts data supports the idea of a density-dependent line shift. The significant features of the spectra emitted from the densest part of the plasma are compared with predictions from standard diagnostics modeling based on codes MEDUSA and FLY, and with the results of 2D ATLANT hydrodynamic simulations post-processed with a novel suite of atomic physics codes XEPAP. The results obtained corroborate the feasibility of the plasma density diagnostics based on line shifts in the intermediately coupled plasmas.

Kα line emission from partially ionized material was studied to diagnose energy transport in ultrahigh-intensity laser produced plasmas. Dependence of the emission intensity on initial target conductivity was investigated by using a plastic target (C2H3Cl coated with CH) and a metallic target (Al coated with Mg) irradiated with a 1-TW Ti:sapphire laser pulse of 132 fs at 2×10 17 W/cm 2 . Depth of the heated region was deduced from Cl or Al He-α line intensities given as a function of overcoat thickness. No significant difference was observed between the two types of targets. Density–depth product of the hot region was typically 0.1 mg/cm 2 for both targets and the temperature of hot electrons measured by an electron spectrometer was 50 keV . The experimental results were analyzed with an integration calculation with a one-dimensional (1D) relativistic Fokker–Planck code, a 1D radiation hydrodynamics (rad-hydro) simulation, and an atomic–kinetic model developed for ionization-shifted Cl Kα lines. The observed transport features are discussed.

Population kinetics and spectral synthesis codes have been developed to analyze Kα emission from partially ionized chlorine in hydrocarbon plasmas irradiated with high-intensity ultra-short laser pulses. The population kinetics processes are calculated using a bi-Maxwellian electron temperature distribution composed of fast and cold electrons. The fast electrons dominantly contribute to ionize the K-shell bound electrons. i.e., inner-shell ionization, while the cold electrons produce ionization from the outer-shell electrons. The resultant Kα emission provides a distinct spectral signature for each charge state. Also included in the calculation are the opacity effects in the framework of an escape probability method. It is shown that the Kα emission is saturated at a plasma thickness of more than a few microns. Further, we find that unresolved satellite lines overlap significantly with the corresponding parent Kα lines of the next charge state, and make a large contribution to composite spectrum. Finally, time-dependent properties of the Kα emission are also discussed briefly.

We present a new x-ray spectrometer setup based on a conically curved mica crystal in the von Hamos configuration. An x-ray sensitive charge coupled device or streak camera can be easily coupled in a perpendicular orientation to the spectrally resolved x-ray line focus. Shifting the crystal along its axis of symmetry allows one to change the dispersion and the signal flux density on the detector. A large spectral range at high resolution and adjustable signal intensity is accessible with this setup.

Temporal evolutions of the electron temperature and density profiles in the inertial confinement fusion core plasma were obtained through a combination of experimental technology to create a uniform core, diagnostics developments, and a data analysis technique to obtain an optimal solution. In the experiment, time- and space-resolved x-ray spectroscopic measurements were carried out; an x-ray streak spectrograph and a monochromatic x-ray framing camera provided temporal evolution of x-ray spectrum and monochromatic emissivities, respectively. The spectrum and emissivity profile were iteratively fitted as a function of electron temperature, density, and space. Then, optimal solutions were successfully extracted with the help of Niched–Pareto genetic algorithm. Temporal behavior between those data is well corrected by comparing spatially and spectrally integrated intensities. The resultant profiles were compared with hydrocode simulations, showing that spatially averaged electron temperature and density evo...

We investigate subpicosecond dynamics of warm dense hydrogen at the XUV free-electron laser facility (FLASH) at DESY (Hamburg). Ultrafast impulsive electron heating is initiated by a â‰300-fs short x-ray burst of 92-eV photon energy. A second pulse probes the sample via x-ray scattering at jitter-free variable time delay. We show that the initial molecular structure dissociates within (0.9±0.2) ps, allowing us to infer the energy transfer rate between electrons and ions. We evaluate Saha and Thomas-Fermi ionization models in radiation hydrodynamics simulations, predicting plasma parameters that are subsequently used to calculate the static structure factor. A conductivity model for partially ionized plasma is validated by two-temperature density-functional theory coupled to molecular dynamic simulations and agrees with the experimental data. Our results provide important insights and the needed experimental data on transport properties of dense plasmas. © 2014 American Physical Society.

We report on the dynamics of ultrafast heating in cryogenic hydrogen initiated by a ≲300 fs, 92 eV free electron laser x-ray burst. The rise of the x-ray scattering amplitude from a second x-ray pulse probes the transition from dense cryogenic molecular hydrogen to a nearly uncorrelated plasmalike structure, indicating an electron-ion equilibration time of ∼0.9 ps. The rise time agrees with radiation hydrodynamics simulations based on a conductivity model for partially ionized plasma that is validated by two-temperature density-functional theory. © 2014 American Physical Society.

We present a novel method for cross sectional imaging with nanometer resolution which is referred to as XUV coherence tomography (XCT). XCT uses extreme ultra violet light (XUV), e.g., from high harmonic generation (HHG)

The direct and real-time study of structural processes has been very successful in revealing timescales of phase transitions, non-thermal melting, acoustic waves, optical phonons and charge transfer in solids. Time-resolved X-ray diffraction (TRXD) is a rapidly growing research area of much current interest. The most important requirement for such a challenging task is to provide a source of hard X-rays with sub-picosecond pulse duration. In this chapter the development and application of a table-top laser system to generate hard X-rays with sub-picosecond pulse durations for time-resolved X-ray measurements are described.

To extend ultra-fast time resolved X-ray diffraction measurements to a wider class of phenomena, this chapter presents investigations of solids at cryogenic temperatures. The setup is described, and results of static measurements of the temperature dependency of SrTiO3 lattice constants, as well as results on the transient behaviour of a system consisting of a SrTiO3 single crystal covered by a thin film of the high temperature superconductor YBa2Cu3O7–δ are presented.

The interaction of femtosecond laser pulses (800 nm, 150 fs, 1 kHz) with the surface of fused silica glass was investigated. The morphology and chemical composition of unirradiated and irradiated glass surfaces and of the material ejected from the surface were examined by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The experimental results show that (i) femtosecond laser pulses induced damage on the surface of the glass by the formation of micro-holes. Material was ejected from the glass surface during laser irradiation while the glass was melted, (ii) the interaction of the laser beam with glass was initially fast but decreased rapidly with time and eventually no change was observed, (iii) no significant changes in the chemical composition of the irradiated glass surfaces were observed. The chemical composition of the ejected and original material was essentially identical, and (iv) the presence of crystalline phase was detected in the ejected material.

The satellite structure accompanying the Al Lyα emission from plasma regions close to the surface of the laser-irradiated targets is studied. In spectra produced at constant laser energy but variable pulse duration we identify the situations where the resonance line is suppressed and only the emission from long-wavelength satellites is observed. The experimental data are compared with results of calculations based on two-dimensional hydrodynamics and multilevel collisional-radiative codes. Simulations indicate that these spectra originate from cold dense plasma created inside the crater several tens of micrometers under the surface of the solid target.

The focusing properties of asymmetrically cut bent crystals in Bragg geometry are discussed. The conditions for optimized one- and two-dimensional polychromatic imaging of x-ray sources are proposed. In particular configurations, the schemes with asymmetrically cut crystals provide smaller aberrations and slightly higher collection efficiency than symmetrically diffracting optical elements. The analytical results are cross-checked with ray-tracing simulations, the validity of theoretical predictions is verified experimentally for one-dimensional case.

At the Institute of Laser Engineering, Osaka University, we have obtained Ni-like x-ray lasers of various atomic number elements, including many shorter wavelength Ni-like lasing lines around 5nm. The saturated amplification of Ni-like Ag lasing line at the wavelength of 13.9nm have been observed. Using these x-ray lasers, we are preparing the application experiments such as probing a laser-produced plasma with an x-ray laser interferometer.

Ultrashort bursts of K α X-ray radiation were generated from fs-laser-produced plasmas. A complete experimental characterization of the X-ray source in terms of spectral, spatial, and temporal properties was performed. The pulse width of the K α burst is shorter than 250 fs. The time-resolved evolution of a shock wave launched by a synchronized laser pulse in InSb was investigated. The transient change of the rocking curve yields detailed information on the structural changes.

Monochromatic x-ray imaging with toroidally bent crystals has been applied to investigate critical issues in laser fusion research in collaboration with Jena University [for example, I. Uschmann et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66, 734 (1995)]. Described in this article is the study on x-ray diagnostics to provide simultaneously time, space, and spectral resolutions for the laser fusion experiments by the use of toroidally bent crystals. A monochromatic x-ray imager was developed, which consists of two sets of identical five bent crystals and a fast x-ray framing camera. The attained spatial resolution of 6 μm, time resolution of 34 ps, and spectral resolution of 10 eV are high enough to observe temporal evaluation and temperature distribution of the laser fusion hot core. In addition, a new x-ray imager with bent crystal was developed to investigate hydrodynamic instabilities occurring in laser-driven planer targets as one of the most critical issues in laser fusion research. The imager was so designed as to m...

A theory of X-ray diffraction on asymmetrically cut and elastically bent crystals is discussed. The general form of the Taupin equation is derived for this case. The integration of the reflected waves with a phase factor is proposed to calculate the angular divergence of the diffracted wave.

Intense continua of electromagnetic radiation of very brief duration are formed in the interaction of focused ultra-short terawatt laser pulses with matter. Two different kinds of experiments, which have been performed utilizing the Lund 10 Hz titanium-doped sapphire terawatt laser system are being described, where visible radiation and X-rays, respectively, have been generated. Focusing into water leads to the generation of a light continuum through self-phase modulation. The propagation of the light through tissue was studied addressing questions related to optical mammography and specific chromophore absorption. When terawatt laser pulses are focused onto a solid target with high nuclear charge Z, intense X-ray radiation of few ps duration and with energies exceeding hundreds of keV is emitted. Biomedical applications of this radiation are described, including differential absorption and gated-viewing imaging.