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This paper critically reviews England's National Professional Qualification of Early Years Leadership (NPQEYL) and Sweden's National Principal Training Program (NPTP). The design and implementation of these programs are critiqued considering the process of professional learning, with view of offering recommendations for future policies on professionalisation through leadership professional learning. The study compares the professional development using a simple multiple case study design. Analysis of sources highlight common themes of leadership, curriculum, agency, and professionalism. These are discussed in relation to how such programs may contribute to the early years sector, leading to recommendations to inform future professional learning opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current cost‐of‐living crisis is disproportionately affecting families experiencing poverty and is likely to be amplifying existing dietary inequalities and challenges, such as food insecurity (FI). Government policies designed to address diet inequality in the UK have historically had minimal impact on population diet and health and may have even widened existing inequalities. Therefore, the effect of nutrition policies on those experiencing FI in the context of the current cost‐of‐living crisis needs to be better understood. The aim of the Diet and Health Inequalities (DIO Food) project is to work with early years, people living on a low income and retailers to generate opportune evidence‐based research and commentary that will inform diet‐related health inequalities policy and practice. DIO Food is related to the existing Food Insecurity in people living with Obesity (FIO Food) project, which consists of four interlinked work packages (WPs1‐4). DIO Food consists of three interlinked work packages (WPs5‐7), which enhance the scope of FIO Food, and are described in this article. WP5 addresses a paucity of research on maternal and infant food insecurity in the UK, by applying a qualitative research approach to capture parents' and carers' perceptions of the relationship between the food system and other influences impacting infant feeding practice, associated with the cost‐of‐living crisis. WP6 will conduct the first‐ever cross‐retailer independent evaluation of England's high fat, sugar and salt (HFSS) product placement legislation. Researchers will analyse store‐level supermarket sales data provided by large UK retailers to produce sector‐level insights into whether HFSS legislation reduced HFSS purchasing, improved the healthiness of retailer product portfolios, and was equitable across areas with different characteristics. WP7 will support WP5 and 6, by strengthening engagement with key stakeholders, including at‐risk consumers and representatives of major supermarkets, and effectively translating research outcomes and stakeholder perspectives for policy and industry decision‐makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the piloting of a literacy, arts and wellbeing (LAB) project in a rural school in Queensland, Australia. The research involved a Year 1 class (n = 24) participating in co-designed lessons with their classroom teacher and two visiting researchers from a regional university. These lessons were developed with literacy learning outcomes, arts-based approaches and positive education components in mind. Lesson observations and artefacts were collected to understand the children's participation and development of the learning objectives. In addition, teacher interviews and researcher reflections provided feedback about the approach's effectiveness. Data were analysed using an arts-based social engagement model to improve health. Evidence from this case study showed that language and literacy learning outcomes and wellbeing were strongly developed through the LAB approaches. More research is needed to know if a whole school LAB approach would benefit children across other settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the perceived benefits of and barriers to, using puppets in early years classrooms and childcare settings. An online survey of 121 early years educators revealed that puppets are widely, but infrequently, used in the early years, and are largely found to be valuable pedagogical tools by those that use them. Puppets were reported to benefit play, teaching, wellbeing and the communication of behaviour requirements, as well as positively impacting engagement with learning and behaviour mediation. Frequent users were more positive than infrequent users. Barriers to usage included a lack of confidence or awareness of how to use puppets pedagogically (23%, n = 19), a lack of puppet resources (23%, n = 19) and a series of 'sub-conscious' decisions not to use puppets based more on apathy than dislike (49%, n = 40). A small minority (10%, n = 8) made a conscious decision not to use puppets because they were negative about puppets. Training and information are required to encourage more puppet use and raise awareness of the benefits; there is also a need for the provision of puppet resources to realise the pedagogical potential of puppet play in the early years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The curriculum reform in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, focuses on implementing high‐quality, evidence‐based instruction, particularly explicit teaching and the gradual release of responsibility. This paper examines the ‘quality’ of writing instruction in the new curriculum materials for Kindergarten to Year 6 teachers. Our document analysis of four Stage 1 Narrative units of work reveals significant gaps in implementing the Gradual Release of Responsibility model, with inconsistencies in modelled, guided and independent writing instruction. These gaps emerge through ambiguous instructional techniques, minimal use of ‘think alouds’, few opportunities for guided writing interactions, and a predominant focus on decontextualised, skill‐driven independent writing. These inconsistencies contradict established research on pedagogical approaches and the principles underpinning NSW Curriculum reform. We argue that, without critical adaptation by teachers, these materials risk reinforcing inadequate writing instruction, impacting student learning and early career teachers' pedagogical development. This study highlights broader implications for educational contexts undergoing similar reform and emphasises the need for further research on implementing these curriculum materials and their impact on teachers' writing instructional practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article summarises a storytelling process used to obtain data from five anonymised teachers as part of a doctoral thesis. The small story and story completion approach was used to gain insight into how teachers reconciled refugee/asylum seeker policies with inclusive practice. The process proved a useful way of enabling teachers to consider a range of influences on their personal and professional lives in a supportive environment. The teachers were able to reflect on challenges faced by refugee children and their teachers, including professional dilemmas. As well as providing useful data for the thesis, feedback indicated that the procedure enabled teachers to reflect on their practice, with some introducing changes which impacted positively on provision in their settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Songs seem popular for achieving educational purposes other than teaching music in early education, despite scant evidence to support this 'folk pedagogy'. To investigate why teachers use songs, this mixed-methods study explored teachers' self-reported purposes for using songs in an online questionnaire (n = 103) and semi-structured interviews (n = 7), finding that respondents hold strong beliefs about songs' effectiveness for teaching content, establishing classroom routines, and supporting pupils' linguistic and social development. There are considerable differences between how early years and upper primary teachers use songs. All use songs intuitively. Research needs to provide more rigorous evidence to underpin this valued teaching practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COVID-19 impacted all aspects of children's lives. Research showed that teachers were most concerned about Communication and Language, and Personal, Social and Emotional Development, two of the three Prime Areas of the Early Years Foundation Stage which underpin all learning. The pandemic had a significant impact on early years settings. Practitioners reacted quickly, adapting the way they worked with children and families to ensure all children were supported, whether at home or in the education setting. This paper examines these short-term responses and reflects on what the disruption tells us about what is important to early years practitioners and parents. The Language Intervention in the Early Years (LIVELY) project, focusing on language and communication skills in the Early Years Foundation Stage, started just before the first lockdown and was therefore ideally placed to investigate changes that resulted from the pandemic. We interviewed 11 practitioners, from 10 schools and 1 nursery in the North East of England. Within the group, the experiences of children, families and practitioners varied; our aim was to identify common themes. Parental engagement, the relationships between schools and parents/caregivers which enable children's learning, became even more central and much of the support provided by settings focused on how parents and carers interacted with their children to support language and communication. This paper identifies some of the benefits of the imposed changes and how these could continue in early years settings post-pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Schools and early years settings provide an opportunity to promote healthy and sustainable food, but standards and guidance in England focus predominantly on nutritional quality. The present study estimated greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) of school lunches provided for children attending school nurseries, including comparison between meal options. Methods: Menus, recipes and portion weights for lunches provided for 3–4‐year‐old children attending nine school nurseries were collected daily for one week. GHGE for each food and recipe were calculated using Foodprint functionality of Nutritics software. GHGE were calculated for each menu option (main, vegetarian, jacket potato and sandwich) provided in each school, and for meals with and without meat/fish. Results: In total, 161 lunches including 273 foods were analysed. Median GHGE across all meals was 0.53 kgCO2e (i.e. kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent) per portion, with significantly higher GHGE associated with main meals (0.71 kgCO2e per portion) compared to all other meal types (0.43–0.50 kgCO2e per portion; p < 0.001) which remained after adjustment for meal size and energy density. Red meat‐based meals were highest in GHGE (median 0.98 kgCO2e per portion and 0.34 kgCO2e per 100 g) and meals containing any meat/fish were significantly higher in GHGE (median 0.58 kgCO2e per portion) than vegetarian meals (median 0.49 kgCO2e per portion) (p = 0.014). Meals with higher adherence to the nutrient framework underpinning the early years guidelines had significantly higher GHGE than meals with lower adherence (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The results were comparable to previous estimates of school lunch GHGE and highlight variation by meal option. Consideration of GHGE alongside the nutritional quality of lunches by caterers could support provision of healthy and sustainable lunches. Highlights: Mean greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) across all meal types provided for 3–4‐year‐old children attending school nurseries was 0.61 kgCO2e (i.e. kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent) per portion (SD 0.32) (median 0.53 kgCO2e per portion).When GHGE were compared for different meal types, total GHGE were significantly higher for main meals compared to jacket potato meals, vegetarian meals, and sandwich meals, and this was the case whether compared per portion, per 100 g food or per 100 kcal.Red meat was the greatest contributor to GHGE per portion.There was larger variation in the GHGE of non‐vegetarian meals compared to vegetarian meals (depending on the protein included) and meals containing meat or fish had significantly higher GHGE than vegetarian meals.Meals with medium or high adherence to the nutrient framework underpinning the early years guidelines had significantly higher GHGE than meals with low adherence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The home learning environment (HLE) is the first environment in which children's early learning takes place. A number of studies have provided empirical evidence that the HLE contributes to children's cognitive, socio-emotional development. This study addresses the question of the factors that can be associated with creating a positive learning environment for children at home. Pilot quantitative data was collected from 324 families through a questionnaire about the activities parents get involved with their children. The frequency of reading-related activities as well as other in-home and out-of-home learning activities was calculated. Pearson's correlation coefficient was employed to assess the relationship between parent education levels and activities within the HLE. Questionnaire reliability was examined using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The results showed that the gender and educational level of parents had no influence on the frequency of their involvement in the activities or the type of activities they chose to engage. However, the parents' educational level has an impact on their beliefs, which influence the provision of learning opportunities and the quantity and quality of parent-child interactions. Further research on parental guidance or children's academic performance could collect more information on the factors that can create a more stimulating HLE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PurposeMethodResultsConclusionEarly childhood is a crucial time to develop fundamental motor skills (FMS) such as throwing, running and kicking (Goodway, J. D., J. C. Ozmun, and D. L. Gallahue. 2019. Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults. Jones & Bartlett Learning.). Existing research into the play-based early childhood curricular in Wales found that children were not making progress in learning object control skills (Wainwright, N., J. Goodway, M. Whitehead, A. Williams, and D. Kirk. 2018. “Laying the Foundations for Physical Literacy in Wales: The Contribution of the Foundation Phase to the Development of Physical Literacy.” Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 23 (4): 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1455819.). This was a concern as object control skill competency is critical to physical activity later in childhood and adolescence (Barnett, L. M., E. Van Beurden, P. J. Morgan, L. O. Brooks, and J. R. Beard. 2009. “Childhood Motor Skill Proficiency as a Predictor of Adolescent Physical Activity.” Journal of Adolescent Health 44 (3): 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.07.004.). Therefore, SKIP (Successful Kinaesthetic Instruction for Pre-schoolers) – Cymru (Welsh word for Wales), a programme of professional development was developed based on the evidence-based work of SKIP by Goodway and colleagues (Goodway, J. D., J. C. Ozmun, and D. L. Gallahue. 2019. Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults. Jones & Bartlett Learning.) to address the gaps in teacher knowledge. A limitation of previous SKIP and motor development literature is the lack of evaluation of the teacher’s fidelity to implementation. Ensuring fidelity of implementation (FoI) is a critical indicator of quality intervention programmes. Thus, this study examined the extent to which teachers could implement a 10-week SKIP-Cymru programme with fidelity with ongoing mentoring following a programme of professional development.Participants: Early childhood teachers (N = 5), with no prior experience of SKIP Cymru, from 4 Welsh schools took part in the study. Mentors (N = 2) supported the teacher’s implementation of SKIP Cymru following the one-day professional development workshop. Quantitative data were collected using fidelity checklists for both the Teacher Workshop and the implementation of SKIP Cymru. Descriptive statistics of fidelity data were calculated.The results for the Teacher Workshop found that 100% of the content was delivered in relation to the Core Instructional Principles, Practices and Expectations of the SKIP-Cymru, and teachers learned the key outcomes. The average teacher fidelity for implementation of SKIP Cymru was 67.80% (ranging between 39% and 89%). On average the teachers delivered 16.4 out of the 20 lessons. The mentors supported the teachers for an average of 7.4 lessons out of the 10 lessons.This study demonstrates that it is possible to train teachers to deliver a developmentally appropriate motor skills programme. Nevertheless, it was evident from the inconsistencies in implementation that teachers needed more in-depth knowledge, and specifically a lot more time to develop the pedagogical and instructional skills needed to optimize the impacts of SKIP Cymru on children. It is recommended that the current model of professional development needs to be re-evaluated, with consideration being given to either more in-depth training for mentors or more in-depth accredited training for the teachers that would negate the need for mentoring and have a bigger impact on the teacher’s pedagogy and delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores an emerging methodological approach called doppelganger as method. This method uses the idea of a doppelganger or double to explore the social world. It is specifically used to examine datafication, or the increase in the production and use of data and its impact on education. Doppelganger as method begins by locating doubles, finding that doubles of the child and teacher are created through the focus on data production in early childhood education. It then asks how this doubling operates as an instrument of power, using understandings of the literary genre of the doppelganger along with its psychoanalytic interpretations to formulate novel interpretations. Doppelganger as method has been used as a tool to reconceptualize datafication, the increase in the volume and use of data in educational contexts. Using interpretations of Freud's work on the uncanny, a psychoanalytic understanding of the doppelganger is established. This is then applied in an educational context to interpret the function of various doppelgangers. Findings from this method include an ambivalent relationship with data, the marginalization of bilingual children and changes to both teacher and child subjectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we provide a sociological analysis of parental choice in pre-school sports and physical activity, as a form of concerted cultivation, to understand the uptake of sports-based physical activity (PA) enrichment activities in England. Despite a growth in the under-five pre-school enrichment market, little is known about why parents pay for their under-five child(ren) to participate in sport and/or PA enrichment or how this relates to wider patterns seen in contemporary parenting. 24 semi-structured interviews with parents of early years children from across England were conducted. Findings suggest the reasons why parents enrol their child(ren) in sports-based enrichment activities can be considered a form of concerted cultivation. In particular, parents value routine and socialisation for themselves and their children. Parents look for paid-for activities that enhance their child's social and academic skills but do not emphasise the health benefits of being physically active as important in their decision making. Instead, they prioritise opportunities to enhance their child's social and cultural skills in ways that enable the child(ren) to be accepted and interact positively with adults and other children in key institutional settings. Parents also valued spaces where their young child(ren) could expend energy, although the importance of this was distinctly gendered. We conclude by outlining that paying for under-fives sport-based enrichment is linked to wider social and cultural expectations on parenting, and highlighting that more needs to be understood about the gendered, racialised and ableist spaces of commercial pre-school sport and PA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the research problem that arises from evidence that, despite supportive policy contexts, enactment of pedagogies that attend to young children's participation rights in classroom settings is highly variable. We report our exploration of the ways in which the child, and child participation are constructed in early education settings in Wales, where legislation and policy around children's rights has been a key feature of the Welsh Government agenda post‐devolution. Data were gathered via a qualitative online bilingual (English and Welsh) survey offered via email to teachers of children aged 3–7 in Wales. The overarching research question of the project was: How do teachers of children 3–7 years understand and enact the notion of participation as it relates to the children they teach? Data analysis focused on research participants' apparent constructions of the children they teach and their capabilities, and unpacked the ways in which these constructions relate to the reported opportunities for participation. The discussion is informed by the notion of the threshold concept, described by Meyer & Land as akin to a portal that opens new and previously inaccessible ways of thinking. We consider the extent to which the conceptual construction of the capable child maybe a threshold concept in shaping the realisation of children's participation rights in educative contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global growth of makerspaces, focusing on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) disciplines, supports participatory child-centred learning and fosters essential skills in areas such as creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration. We argue that establishing a makerspace pedagogy in schools fosters children's engagement in digital/technological learning in a way that is in-keeping with the creative practices of the early years. This paper reports on findings from a research project that took place in one local authority in the north of England focusing on the educational implications of makerspace participation for young children and teachers. The project explored children and teacher engagement with a 'MakerBox' containing a story sack, language and maths activities and maker activities in 17 early years classrooms (Nursery and Reception). As a way of recording children's learning we devised the Makerspace Learning Assessment Framework (MLAF) based on the Characteristics of Effective Learning (CoEL). This framework has been developed as a way of supporting teachers to assess children's skills, knowledge and understanding when participating in makerspaces in a child-centred and holistic way. Through interviews with teachers, we explored their perception of the educational implications of makerspaces for children's learning and their own professional development. Our findings indicate that engagement in makerspaces enhances children's learning experiences as evidenced by the CoEL and positively impacts teachers' STEM knowledge and practice. We conclude that makerspaces offer an holistic, child-centred approach to learning and skill development, aligning with early years creative practice and teacher professional growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the ways in which ‘forest school’, an educational approach where children engage in creative and play based activities in a ‘natural’ environment, can contribute towards Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15) by promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems and by helping address biodiversity loss. Drawing on data from an inquiry that explored childhoodnature play in an inner‐city forest school in London, England, this article discusses the ways in which nature relations emerged over weekly visits to an urban park over the course of one school year. We, the adult and young child researchers and more‐than‐human nature, enacted ‘shared play’ as part of a post‐qualitative approach that involved playing together as a form of data creation. Co‐created ‘play tales’ from the inquiry foreground encounters between children, grass, flowers, soil, trees, fruits and insects and illuminate the ways in which nature relations ignited small, yet powerful, acts to protect and restore the flora and fauna in the urban park. This article asserts that post‐anthropocentric, postdevelopmental educational approaches create opportunities for multi‐species relations to slowly emerge and flourish. These stories illuminate the ways these ethico‐political relations and onto‐epistemological transformations can prevent the continuation of terrestrial ecosystem degradation and contribute towards biodiverse futures in urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measuring the level of literacy has been of interest to educators for decades. Reading involves many different componentsphonemic awareness, ability to decode and construct sounds, comprehension, fluency and speed-most batteries differ in the methodology that they use and in the abilities that they assess. Some international tools - like PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), PISA (Program for International Student Assessment, OECD) measure reading ability for children above the age of 7-8 years. This makes intervention difficult for poor readers. The Let's Read Reading Age Diagnostic Tool (LR-RADT) is based on the Let's Read program and follows the common pattern of teaching reading through phonics in most of the Montessori and preschools in India. It was developed to track the acquisition of decoding and syllabification reading skills in children as early as four years. This article is written to establish the validity and reliability of this tool as an effective and efficient test for acquisition of phonetic reading skills in Early Years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Posthumanism points towards a relational understanding of embodied processes of becoming musical in and with the world which readily combine with existing aspects of early years music practice. In this article I describe the potential of this resonant encounter to develop alternative approaches to listening, opening further possibilities for both research and practice. Drawing on the experience of researching with young children, musicians and Zoom during COVID-19, I describe the pandemic as a 'ruption' (Chappell, Turner, and Wren 2024), a disturbance from which new things may emerge. I contrast listening as usual with 'emergent listening' (Davies 2014), describing how the latter has potential to expand our understanding of children-making-music and to make space for more diverse players to enter the scene, both human and other-than-human. I provide an example of using emergent listening in research documentation, holding the space open for divergent understandings of an emergent practice to develop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a new leadership coaching model that was delivered as part of Manchester city region's delivery of the Department for Education's Early Outcomes Fund. The coaching model explicitly paralleled the relational practices that are increasingly shaping early intervention policy and practice. Goodwin's theory of professional vision (1994) and Shotter's theorisation of with-ness (2011) provided the conceptual lens for this paper. The coaching facilitation aimed to afford the emergence of a new way of seeing leadership by scrutinising events of relational practice between participants in the coaching sessions (using video recording and review) and creating discursive practices using strengths-based analysis. We exemplify the coaching model using notes from a collaborative ethnographic evaluation of the six half-day group coaching sessions, surfacing how a new way of seeing silence may have seeded a new 'object of knowledge' in the group's emerging professional vision of leadership in the early years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Early language delay is exacerbated by social disadvantage. Factors such as parents' low levels of literacy, confidence and self‐perception can affect the capacity to act on advice received, critical to empowerment. Methods used to achieve successful health outcomes in socially disadvantaged clinical populations may need enhancing. Aims: To compare the impact of standard parent‐based intervention (PBI) to enhanced PBI for young children with speech, language and communication needs (SCLN) and their families living in more socially disadvantaged populations. Methods and Procedures: A multicentre clustered blind randomised controlled trial was used to compare the effect of parent‐based group interventions to improve early language development with children (mean age 27.5 months) from more socially disadvantaged populations with an expressive vocabulary of 40 or less single words. Intervention sessions were delivered by a speech and language therapist, over a 20‐week period. Participants received one of two interventions: (1) Standard Care – indirect group PBI – (PBI) (2) Enhanced Care: indirect group enhanced PBI – (EPBI). Both standardised and non‐standardised measures were used as outcomes. Parent engagement in the intervention was captured through analysis of attendance and the Parent Activation Measure – Speech & Language Therapy (PAM‐SLT) (Insignia Health, 2014). The PAM measures a person's knowledge, skills and confidence to manage their own health and well‐being (NHS England, 2018). In this study, activation referred to parents' knowledge, skills and confidence to manage their child's language development. Outcomes and Results: One hundred fifty‐five participants were randomised at baseline. Children in both groups made significant improvements in the outcome on MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories Sentence Length, from pre‐intervention to post‐intervention and 6 months post‐intervention (p < 0.05). Changes in vocabulary and expressive language skills were more equivocal, showing wide variation in confidence intervals for both groups. Where parents attended at least one intervention session almost all effect sizes were in favour of the EPBI intervention. Parents' activation levels significantly increased for both groups (EPBI p < 0.001, PBI p = 0.003), with a moderate effect size in favour of EPBI (Hedges' G 0.37, confidence interval –0.02 to 0.76), although wide variation was found. Conclusions and Implications: This trial provides some evidence of facilitating the language development of children with SLCN from more socially disadvantaged areas through supporting caregivers. However, we found variation in outcomes; some children made excellent progress, whilst others did not. Further exploration of parent engagement and its relationship to child language outcomes will be valuable to understanding more about mechanisms of change in interventions that involve parents. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) have a knock‐on effect on emotional well‐being, school readiness, literacy and school attainment, putting children at increased risk of long‐term consequences such as poor literacy, mental health problems and unemployment. In disadvantaged areas, the prevalence of language difficulties is higher than elsewhere. Factors such as parents' low levels of literacy, confidence and self‐perception can affect the capacity to act on advice received, critical to empowerment. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: Children with SLCN from more socially disadvantaged areas can make improvements in their language development through parent intervention, although wide individual variation was found. There was some evidence that children achieve better outcomes with EPBI, which employed an interagency collaborative approach. Parent's engagement (activation levels) increased significantly over time with intervention, with the increase twice as big for EPBI. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: This trial provides some evidence that it is possible to facilitate the language development of children from more socially disadvantaged areas through supporting their caregivers. Further research would be useful to determine whether increases in parent engagement are related to adherence to intervention and change in child outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Generative artificial intelligence (GAI) is rapidly becoming ubiquitous in many contexts. There is limited scholarship, however, in the fields of Developmental Psychology and Early Childhood Education exploring the implications of generative AI for babies and young children. In this Perspectives piece, we discuss potential use cases, opportunities, and risks for the application of AI in early childhood. Our insights are informed by extensive discussion with stakeholders and by desk research carried out in our roles as academics and analysts in a social innovation foundation. Our aim is to stimulate nuanced and informed discourse on the topic of generative AI in early childhood that can inform innovation in both research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractEquitable teaching practices encompass evidence-based strategies utilised by teachers to support the learning of all pupils, while recognising each pupil’s unique background. This study delves into the perspectives of Scottish teachers regarding equity in mathematics, as evidenced by their self-reported practices. By analysing semi-structured interviews with 29 teachers from various school levels (early years, primary, and secondary) through Variation Theory, we were able to uncover common practices, such as ability grouping versus mixed-ability grouping, as well as practices specific to each level. We also identified overlaps between early-years/primary and primary/secondary, highlighting the importance of transitioning from one school level to another. It is imperative for teacher education programmes to address these transitions more explicitly in order to ensure greater continuity and consistency in equitable teaching practices.

The impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) is well documented and poses challenges for all those living and working with children who have experienced early adversity. The need to be trauma-informed when working with children in all educational settings is now recognised as essential if healing and learning are to take place. There are an increasing number of trauma-informed approaches available, but empirical evidence that supports their efficacy, particularly in the early years of education, is currently scarce. This paper presents the findings of a small-scale study which explored early childhood professionals' perceptions of the effectiveness and sustainability of one trauma-informed approach, Trust Based Relational Intervention (TBRI®). Used widely across the US and Europe, TBRI® is relatively new to Australia and was trialled for the first time in this Tasmanian study. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's (SAMHSA, 2014) concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach was used to provide a theoretical framework. Online surveys were used to gather data after each professional learning workshop and three and six-months later. Participants reported several positives of TBRI®, including self-development and improved outcomes for children. Whilst challenges/barriers to using the approach were noted, many related to contextual issues rather than to TBRI® specifically. Findings also showed that equipping families with a similar skill set would be advantageous and integral to effecting sustainable change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition to school is a critical period for children and families. Successful transition predicts later school achievement and socio-emotional outcomes with sustained long-term benefits. Educational disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic meant that support for the transition of children from nursery to school was limited. The study aimed to investigate the impact of the pandemic on early years transitions in the U.K., with a focus on children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities. Using a sequential mixed-methods research design, data was gathered from a survey before children started school, and semi-structured interviews after starting school. Results revealed that support for the transition of young children from nursery to school was inevitably affected. Key challenges and facilitating factors in planning for transition are reported as well as the impact of the pandemic on children, families and early years practitioners. The paper concludes with recommendations for policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently the number of men working in early years education in England is very low at 2%. This stubbornly resistant workforce pattern matters because it perpetuates the entrenched gender stereotype of young children's education and care as women's work. It is extraordinary to find this corner of gender statis in a world that is supposedly in the grip of a gender revolution. This gender revolution does not appear to have impacted on, or even dented, the gendered nature of the early years workforce. This is all the more remarkable because early years staffing shortages have now reached crisis point in England (the country where the authors reside and where they have carried out the research referred to in this paper). The small minority of men that do take up work in this sector often work interchangeably with their female counterparts, adopting a range of roles and responsibilities including reading, rough and tumble, comforting and food preparation. The task of intimate care however, or more specifically 'nappy changing', remains an area of tension within men's presence in early years settings, with parents or carers sometimes requesting that male practitioners do not change their child's nappy or nursery managers removing men from this role. Although the Sex Discrimination and Equalities Act 2010 stipulates that no employee should be discriminated against because of their sex, a 2-year study into the recruitment and support of men in early years education in England (GenderEYE) shows that discriminatory practices around intimate care are very much alive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-colonial Hong Kong is an officially trilingual city with significant numbers of residents speaking English, Cantonese, Mandarin, or some combination of all three. Competency in these languages is promoted through educational policies and practices at all levels of schooling. Using concepts from the Deweyan framework of democracy and education, this article explores relational practices among bilingual co-teachers at a private, international early years programme in Hong Kong that emphasizes democratic philosophies of learning in their efforts to promote trilingualism. Findings point to co-teachers' interest in developing collaborative relationships, and prompting interest in additional language use through promotion of children's interests, along with tensions they experience as they grapple with instruction in multiple languages. Findings point to a need for more nuanced understandings of co-teaching dynamics in post-colonial multilingual learning contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Early intervention is recommended for pre‐school children with low language. However, few robustly evaluated language interventions for young children exist. Furthermore, in many interventions the theoretical underpinnings are underspecified and the 'active ingredients' of the interventions not tested. This paper presents a quasi‐experimental study to test the efficacy and examine the active ingredients of Building Early Sentences Therapy (BEST): an intervention based on usage‐based theory designed to support young children to understand and produce two‐, three‐ and four‐clause element sentences. BEST manipulates the input children hear to support them to harness the cognitive mechanisms hypothesized in usage‐based theories to promote the development of abstract linguistic representations. One such input manipulation is the use of signing alongside verbal input signalling both content and morphology of target sentences. Aims: To examine whether (1) BEST is more efficacious than treatment as usual (TAU); and (2) signing of content and morphology is an active ingredient of the intervention. Methods & Procedures: A quasi‐experimental study recruited children aged 3;5–4;5 years from 13 schools. Schools were assigned to receive either BEST with sign, BEST without sign or TAU. The TAU group received their usual classroom provision. Across arms schools were matched with respect to classroom oral language environment and indices of deprivation. Participants were 48 children (28 boys) with expressive and/or receptive language abilities ≤ 16th centile measured using the New Reynell Developmental Language Scales (NRDLS). Outcomes gathered by researchers blind to treatment arm were NRDLS production and comprehension standard scores and measures of production of targeted sentence structures. Outcomes & Results: Primary outcomes indicate that BEST with sign was significantly more efficacious than TAU with respect to NRDLS production standard score, but not comprehension. The advantage for production was maintained at follow‐up. BEST without sign was significantly more efficacious than TAU on measures of targeted vocabulary, sentence structure and morphology. The results from this quasi‐experimental study provide evidence for the efficacy of a usage‐based intervention on expressive language outcomes for preschool children with low language abilities. There is also evidence to support the inclusion of sign as an active ingredient, and so efforts to train interventionists in its use are worthwhile. Conclusions & Implications: Patterns of findings across outcomes suggest signing of content and morphology may support the development of abstract linguistic representations and accelerate language learning. Given these positive results and the scale of this study, a fully powered randomized controlled trial is warranted. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Robust language skills are crucial for positive social, emotional, academic and economic outcomes across the lifespan. There is a paucity of robustly evaluated interventions for preschool children with language difficulties. The development of such interventions is crucial for ameliorating language difficulties and promoting positive educational and psychosocial outcomes. What this study adds to the existing knowledge: This paper evaluates BEST, a novel usage‐based language intervention targeting children with language difficulties in the early years. Findings indicate that a usage‐based intervention is efficacious for treating language difficulties. In particular, BEST benefited expressive language development, bringing benefits to both treated and untreated language structures and improving standard scores. The role of sign as an active ingredient is also supported. Further evaluation is warranted. What are the practical and clinical implications of this work?: Findings suggest that BEST may be effective for targeting children who have been identified as having language difficulties. In particular, expressive language may be improved when the intervention is delivered as it was originally manualized, including a signing system to represent content and grammatical morphology. More broadly, these findings also provide preliminary evidence that the use of a signing system does not hinder oral language development in children with language difficulties and may conversely support their expressive language. Future research exploring the role and underpinning mechanisms of sign in language intervention is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Musical spaces have been observed to be highly engaging for autistic children, ameliorating barriers often experienced in communication and interaction. Music interventions with this group are widespread and have frequently noted the importance of integrating caregivers. Yet beyond music therapy, there is limited research on how to support music-making in daily life for autistic children and their families. In particular, there is a lack of long-term ecological evidence with this group for how music can support everyday functioning, care routines, and wellbeing. In this study, 25 families participated in a 12-month program which supported the integration of music into everyday life. Families were interviewed at the end of the project regarding the effectiveness of music as a support for daily routines, play, and wellbeing. Qualitative thematic analysis highlighted how families implemented musical strategies in widespread ways as a medium to support communication, create valued opportunities for shared interaction, and as a way to scaffold everyday caring routines. Families' uses of musical play strategies, as observed in this study, emphasize the importance of incorporating caregivers and home environments as part of arts programs for autistic children, and the effectiveness of empowering parents to use music as a tool to navigate everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In September 2021, following the global COVID‐19 pandemic, the Department for Education introduced a national standardised digital Reception Baseline Assessment (RBA) for all English 4‐year‐old children. We analyse RBA and its associated Quality Monitoring Visits, as a further intensification of the new public management of early years education to produce ‘school‐ready’ human capital. This paper reports on professionals' and children's responses to RBA by analysing the mixed‐methods data from a nationwide survey of early years professionals (n = 1032) and six in‐depth case study Reception classes with teacher interviews (n = 14) and researcher observations (n = 12). An adult thematic analysis of the responses suggests that some children and their teachers used their agency in creative ‘small acts’ of micro‐resistance. These ‘small acts’ of resistance and refusal are theorised as micro‐political contestations of a policy that is antithetical to early education's socio‐cultural approach. More research is needed to further understand the politics of young children's rights, agency, micro‐resistance and refusal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper critically examines the tensions arising between Reception teachers' professional beliefs and knowledge, and the school readiness agenda in England. It scrutinises how the increasing academic expectations placed on children to ensure they are 'ready for school' may conflict with teachers' understanding of how young children learn, their pedagogical philosophies and classroom practices. In this paper, cultural‐historical activity theory (CHAT) is utilised as a methodological and analytical framework, specifically harnessing Engeström and Sannino's work on 'manifestations of contradictions'. This theoretical lens is applied to elucidate the specific contradictions that surface at the policy–practice interface and to explore how teachers navigate these conflicts and tensions. Data were gathered through interviews with two Reception teachers and analysed to identify four distinct contradiction categories: dilemmas, double binds, critical conflicts and conflicts. The findings make a critical contribution to ongoing debates about the implications of the school readiness agenda on teacher beliefs, professional knowledge and the impact on children. Furthermore, this paper extends an original contribution to the practical application of CHAT in Early Childhood Education (ECE) research and emphasises the utility of identifying linguistic cues as an effective strategy to reveal contradictions in textual data, thereby furthering understanding of policy–practice tensions in ECE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early numerical skills are important not only for later mathematical achievement but for overall achievement and are associated with later income, health, and quality of life. Socioeconomic disparities in numerical skills are visible before children begin school, and widen throughout schooling. It is, therefore, important to support the development of early numerical skills in children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Previous studies have highlighted the effectiveness of linear number board games for improving early numerical skills, and the beneficial effect of counting backward as well as forward. We designed a number board game that required children to place number cards in order on a line, either forward-only or forward and backward in small groups in the classroom. The game's effectiveness was evaluated in 4- to 5-year-old children from schools located in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. Children were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: playing the number game forward-only (n = 82), playing the number game forward and backward (i.e., bidirectional condition; n = 82), or an alphabet game (active control, n = 85). After eight gameplay sessions across 5 weeks, children's numerical and letter-sound knowledge skills improved, but there was no significant effect of the intervention condition. Neither forward nor bidirectional number line games (nor the alphabet game) added benefits beyond the learning already happening in the classroom. Short linear board game interventions may be effective compared to control groups who received minimal or absent numerical education, but they fail to provide an additional advantage when children are already learning mathematics in school. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: The study investigated the effectiveness of a brief number board game intervention aimed at enhancing early numerical skills in young children. Low attrition, high engagement, and enjoyment were observed among the children during the game sessions, demonstrating the game's potential in terms of usability. However, the game did not provide additional benefits beyond regular classroom learning. Short game-based interventions may not always improve numerical skills beyond the learning already happening in the classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We investigated grandparents' motivations and challenges for grandparent–grandchild outdoor play with their 3‐ to 5‐year‐old grandchildren. Background: Outdoor play benefits children's and older persons' mental and physical health. Thus, intergenerational outdoor play could benefit both grandparents and their younger grandchildren. Method: Semistructured interviews were conducted with 14 grandparents (seven grandmothers and seven grandfathers) from British Columbia, Canada, who lived in the same province as their grandchildren and who were fluent in English. Grandparents were recruited using a convenience, purposive sampling method with social media advertisements, posters in community centers, and word of mouth. Results: Using a thematic analysis, we identified six themes: (a) improving grandparents' and grandchildren's health, (b) supporting children's needs, (c) feeling positive emotions, (d) supporting family closeness, (e) aspiring to go outdoors together, and, (f) maintaining the relationship despite the COVID‐19 pandemic. Conclusion: Our study emphasizes the importance of outdoor play for grandparents, especially as they develop their relationship with their young grandchildren. Outdoor play provides a unique opportunity for a health‐boosting activity that also strengthens the relationship and family bonds, and supports grandchildren's developmental needs. Implications: Our research can contribute to promoting outdoor play across the life span, and more specifically the benefits of outdoor play during early childhood and older adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we analyze students’ mathematics errors in the early years of Brazilian school. To achieve this goal, we developed a questionnaire with eight math problems that included basic operations. This instrument was distributed to 76 third-grade students in three different classes from three different schools. To comprehend what caused the errors, we analyzed each question. To perform these analyzes we used the following categories: Errors due to language difficulties; Errors due to difficulties in obtaining spatial information; Errors due to incorrect associations or rigidity of thinking; Errors due to the application of irrelevant rules or strategies; Errors due to deficient mastery of prerequisite skills, facts, and concepts; Incorrect reproduction of the task; Error of counting; Errors in the assemblage of the arithmetic operations; Errors in the summing up with values bigger than ten; and Specific errors of subtraction. We believe that using errors as motivation could improve students' understanding of mathematics. We seek to help teachers (and researchers) identify most of the mistakes made by students in order to recognize them in their classrooms. The results indicated that some of the students' most common errors are in line with what the literature points out, that is, difficulty in translating the problem into mathematical language; difficulties in using the operations algorithms and difficulties in understanding what the problem is asking.

Based on emerging literature on the important role of self-regulation in supporting learning, policy makers have made efforts to include self-regulation skills in practice and policy documents worldwide. Despite these efforts, there is limited understanding of what self-regulation is and how best to support these skills in the day-to-day life of early years classrooms. Thus, there is a need to systematically analyse and examine these efforts. This research directly responds to this need by examining the ways self-regulation is discussed and promoted in early childhood curriculum frameworks in Canada. The impact of this research involves changed thinking that will evolve through improved clarity in defining and fostering self-regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to a workforce crisis, Australia's early childhood education and care workforce strategy for the next decade, Shaping our Future, was released in September 2021. This strategy was developed through a three-stage, 'top-down' process in which open consultation on pre-defined strategies was the final stage. Analysing data from the voices of those working at the frontline (N = 794), we take a complementary 'bottom-up' approach, mapping accounts of workforce challenges to Shaping our Future's six focus areas. We identify areas of salience and silence. Recognition, Leadership and Capability, and Wellbeing were salient focus areas while Attraction (and Retention), Qualifications and Career Pathways, and Data and Evidence were not. "Paperwork" and "challenging behaviours" were identified as major impediments to workplace wellbeing and educational effectiveness. Missing strategies identified were review of regulatory burden and redress of place-based inequities for those working with children and families who experience complex and challenging life circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic brought about changes to the lives of families with young children. It has been associated with physical and psychological risk, yet the impact on younger children is poorly examined. The aim of this qualitative study was to examine how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the day-to-day life of parents of young children living in a small northern city in British Columbia, Canada. Ten mothers with children aged 0–5 years participated in a six-week longitudinal study between November 2020 and March 2021. This article presents data from entry and exit interviews that were analysed using Todorov's narrative theory. Three key themes were identified: (1) gaps in health services; (2) gaps in early childhood education and programs; and (3) changes to/lost social interactions. Limited opportunities to engage with providers caused frustration and left parents feeling disempowered or dissatisfied. Family support and well-being were negatively impacted by a loss in social connectivity. Despite unpredictability and worries about child development, most of the mothers found ways to cherish the time to 'stop and refocus'. Overall, the families evidenced resilience, despite a loss in relational habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australian educators teaching in the early years of formal schooling find themselves grappling with the dilemmas of preparing learners to sit performance-based assessments in later years and their sense of pedagogic responsibility towards designing competency-based assessment. Studies have explored this tension in the primary and middle years where learners sit national standardised assessments, but there is limited research in the earliest years. Therefore, this article aims to share an educator's experience of using an inquiry-based approach named LAUNCH to act agentically within government assessment systems. Design-based research in an exploratory case study of an Australian Preparatory classroom investigates an educator's pedagogic orientations to the assessment of 14 five- and six-year-old learners' writing and text production. Qualitative data generated from video and audio recordings and learner-generated artefacts captures these pedagogies over a four-week time frame. Sociologist Basil Bernstein's two pedagogic orientations to assessment – competence and performance – provide the theoretical framework for the study. The findings reveal that a mix of orientations allows learners to achieve the expected knowledge and skills that they need to do well in performance-based assessments, as well as unexpected knowledge and skills. For those committed to discussions about professional ethics and assessments, it is crucial that archetypes of pedagogic orientations to assessment are shared to illuminate a close study of practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study adopted a qualitative approach and analysed interviews from seven parents with children enrolled in nursery and kindergarten in Ghana. The interviews examined parents' descriptions of play and learning and how they perceive the value of play in children's learning. The findings revealed that the parents generally have doubts about the ability of play in bringing forth learning in the classroom. In general, they hold a narrow view of play as a break activity and a reward for learning, as well as viewing play and learning as mutually exclusive. The findings are discussed from a social and cultural perspective, drawing a picture of the ethno-theories about child development and the meanings of play and learning in Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through a school case study, this research identifies the macro- and micro-elements that influence the continuing professional development of nursery staff in a Spanish educational setting. Organizational theories are employed to highlight the professional learning experienced by nursery staff through types of learning (formal, informal, and non-formal) and organizational learning analysis (single, double, and triple loops of learning). Qualitative data was collected through unstructured interviews, observations, and document analysis and was gathered in two sessions of three months during one academic year. This study focuses on voices from the learning communities in one early year's classroom in a state school located in Andalusia, in the south of Spain. Twelve early years staffers—including teachers, teaching assistants, managerial team, and external professionals—and six parents and 24 children were observed, including two children diagnosed with special education needs (SEN). This case study shows that a dearth of essential elements such as communication and responsibility networks, a non-permeable system, and resource management policies result in a lack of capability to offer professional development to nursery staff to meet children's educational needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rise of 'Black Lives Matters' has brought to the fore a need to unsettle early years praxis that positions race as separate from the individual, as a problem to be solved through the tokenistic provisioning of resources. In this paper, we explore how a team of early years practitioners were able to bridge the space between themselves and the multicultural community in which they worked. An interpretative onto-epistemology supported the crafting of the research design as a case study that provided insight into multiple meanings through participants' narratives during weekly informal anti-racist reflective meetings, focus group discussions and individual interviews. "Political correctness", social justice and children's rights emerged that highlighted the importance of intra-actions arising between practitioners, their history, society and the environment. Consequently, new conceptualisations of race and anti-racist praxis emerged that transformed their practice and their way of being in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early years education is offered free to all three-year-olds in Northern Ireland, prior to starting primary school, and most parents take advantage of this offer for their children. An experience of early years education has been shown to considerably improve life chances and to be important in starting the process of building a shared society, particularly important in a divided society emerging from conflict such as Northern Ireland. This paper will examine the degree to which that provision is segregated using GIS analysis and explore the factors which influence those divisions within the wider context of a deeply segregated system of education. Pre-school education in Northern Ireland is found to be highly segregated by community background, and there is a tendency for pre-schools to be more segregated than the areas in which they are located. This may exacerbate existing divisions within education and adding a further year of segregated education may provide a further impediment to building a shared future for communities in Northern Ireland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bilingual parents must often make difficult and complex choices about which languages to use with their children. While existing research has explored family language practices and attitudes within certain language communities, the experiences of African parents are conspicuously absent from the literature. This study explores factors influencing intergenerational language transmission among African families in the UK. As educators can influence parental language choices, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with Early Years Professionals and parents of children attending nurseries. Interviews considered participants' language backgrounds, attitudes and practices, especially in relation to heritage language maintenance. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using thematic analysis. Findings revealed that being proficient in the English language was prioritised by all participants over maintaining the children's heritage language, and the value of African languages was low. The findings suggest that the educators' language practices were influenced by the monolingual education system and, for parents, colonial language ideologies that place English on a pedestal over African languages continue to play an influential role in shaping their language attitudes. Implications of this study include the need for increased understanding within Early Years practice of the unique language profiles and practices of bilingual African families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the association between psychological wellbeing and acquisition of Kiswahili pre-reading skills among pre-primary school children in Tanzania. It employed cross-sectional design and 403 pre-primary school children aged 5–7 years from 12 pre-primary schools in the country. Results revealed that 28% (n = 111) of children had psychological difficulties with conduct problems being the most prevalent among them. Meanwhile, 58% (n = 235) of the studied children scored below average on Kiswahili pre-reading skills test. Results of One-Way ANOVA analysis indicated significant differences in pre-primary school children's mean scores on the level of psychological wellbeing (F (2,400) = 53.315, p<.001, η2 =.210)) and Kiswahili pre-reading skills (F (2,400) = 156.685, p <.001, η2 =.439)) between districts. Results of hierarchical regression indicated that internalizing (β = −.09) and externalizing (β = −.21) variables were significantly correlated with acquisition of Kiswahili pre-reading skills (ps<.05). The model variables explained 46% of the variance in pre-primary school children's acquisition of Kiswahili pre-reading skills. Results confirm that psychological wellbeing significantly influences pre-primary school children's acquisition of Kiswahili pre-reading skills. The study recommends intervention strategies to enhance pre-primary school children's psychological wellbeing and Kiswahili pre-reading skills should be devised and implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical activity (PA) is often used to support the development of young children (<5 years) with disabilities. The effectiveness of PA as an occupational therapy (OT) treatment approach in this population has not yet been systematically examined. This research aimed to explore the uses and effectiveness of OT PA interventions on developmental indicators in young children with developmental disabilities. A systematic review of peer-reviewed publications (from 2000 onward) across six electronic databases was conducted. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) framework was used to assess study quality. Narrative synthesis (vote counting and structured reporting of effects) was employed to summarize the findings. Eight studies with heterogenous interventions were included. Evidence demonstrated positive trends of participation in the PA interventions on physical, cognitive, and social-emotional indicators, with significance varying. There was no association between interventions and communication indicators or negative effects related to participation in the interventions. Overall, the studies were low-quality when judged by GRADE. PA may be a promising avenue for OT interventions among young children with developmental disabilities. Rigorous research is needed to determine the magnitude of effect PA has on developmental indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]