Search

SABER (Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry) is a 10-channel infrared radiometer that is one of four instruments on the NASA TIMED (Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics) satellite mission to study the structure, energetics, chemistry, and dynamics of the Earth’s mesosphere and lower thermosphere. The TIMED spacecraft was launched into a 625 km circular polar orbit (74.1º inclination) via a Boeing Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base on 7 December 2001. SABER continues to operate nominally and collect data routinely as it has for over 21 years. Over 2,200 peer-reviewed journal articles have been published worldwide using SABER data. A list of these articles is included in the Supporting Information accompanying this paper. This paper presents a detailed technical description of the SABER instrument including major subsystems of the instrument and technical performance parameters. This paper comprehensively describes the instrument and its components and provides final instrument design and performance parameters. The motivation for this paper is to document this information permanently for future reference. The Space Dynamics Laboratory (SDL) of Utah State University designed, fabricated, and calibrated the SABER instrument in close collaboration with NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton University, and Global Atmospheric Technologies and Science (GATS).

We present an empirical model of the global infrared energy budget of the thermosphere over the past 70 years. The F10.7, Ap, and Dst indices are used in linear regression fits to the 14.5 year time series of radiative cooling by carbon dioxide and nitric oxide measured by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the TIMED satellite. Databases of these indices are used to develop the radiative cooling time series from 1947. No consistent relation between the occurrence of peak sunspot number and peak infrared cooling is found over the past six solar cycles. The total infrared energy radiated by the thermosphere, integrated over a solar cycle, is nearly constant over five complete solar cycles studied. This is a direct consequence of the geoeffective solar energy also being nearly constant over the same intervals. These results provide a new metric for assessing the terrestrial context of the long-term record of solar-related indices.

Infrared radiation from nitric oxide (NO) at 5.3 µm is a primary mechanism by which the thermosphere cools to space. The Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the NASA Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics satellite has been measuring thermospheric cooling by NO for over 13 years. In this letter we show that the SABER time series of globally integrated infrared power (watts) radiated by NO can be replicated accurately by a multiple linear regression fit using the F10.7, Ap, and Dst indices. This allows reconstruction of the NO power time series back nearly 70 years with extant databases of these indices. The relative roles of solar ultraviolet and geomagnetic processes in determining the NO cooling are derived and shown to vary significantly over the solar cycle. The NO power is a fundamental integral constraint on the thermospheric climate, and the time series presented here can be used to test upper atmosphere models over seven different solar cycles. Key Points F10.7, Ap, and Dst replicate time series of radiative cooling by nitric oxide Quantified relative roles of solar irradiance, geomagnetism in radiative cooling Establish a new index and extend record of thermospheric cooling back 70 years

Infrared radiative cooling of the thermosphere by carbon dioxide (CO2, 15 µm) and by nitric oxide (NO, 5.3 µm) has been observed for 12 years by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics satellite. For the first time we present a record of the two most important thermospheric infrared cooling agents over a complete solar cycle. SABER has documented dramatic variability in the radiative cooling on time scales ranging from days to the 11 year solar cycle. Deep minima in global mean vertical profiles of radiative cooling are observed in 2008–2009. Current solar maximum conditions, evidenced in the rates of radiative cooling, are substantially weaker than prior maximum conditions in 2002–2003. The observed changes in thermospheric cooling correlate well with changes in solar ultraviolet irradiance and geomagnetic activity during the prior maximum conditions. NO and CO2 combine to emit 7 × 1018 more Joules annually at solar maximum than at solar minimum. Key Points First record of thermospheric IR cooling rates over a complete solar cycle IR cooling in current solar maximum conditions much weaker than prior maximum Variability in thermospheric IR cooling observed on scale of days to 11 years

This article is an overview of the open source audio-editing and -recording program, Audacity. Key features are noted, along with significant features not included in the program. A number of music and music technology concepts are identified that could be taught and/or reinforced through using Audacity.

In today’s complex music software packages, many features can remain unexplored and unused. Software plug-ins—available in most every music software package, yet easily overlooked in the software’s basic operations—are one such feature. In this article, I introduce readers to plug-ins and offer tips for purchasing plug-ins I have formulated, and provide three examples of plug-ins’ use in three common software packages.

[1] Atomic oxygen [O] plays a fundamental role in the photochemistry and energy budget of the terrestrial mesopause region (80–100 km). [O] is difficult to measure directly and is typically inferred at night from measurements of hydroxyl [OH] or molecular oxygen [O2] emissions. During the day, measurements of ozone [O3] concentration are used to infer [O]. These inferences carry significant uncertainties [Mlynczak et al., 2013a]. Recently, Mlynczak et al. [2013b] have used energy balance principles to set an upper limit on the annual global mean [O] concentration in the mesopause region. In this paper, we use night measurements of OH emission to set a lower limit on the global annual mean atomic oxygen concentration. These independent, radiatively constrained values of the maximum and minimum atomic oxygen concentration also place constraints on the magnitude of dynamical processes in the annual global mean energy budget of the mesopause region.

[1] We present a new approach to constrain and validate atomic oxygen (O) concentrations in the mesopause region (~ 80 to ~ 100 km). In a prior companion paper [Mlynczak et al., 2013], we presented O-atom concentrations in the mesopause region inferred from measurements of day ozone and night hydroxyl emission rates made by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument. The approach presented here uses the constraint of global, annual mean energy balance to derive atomic oxygen concentrations, consistent with rates of radiative cooling by carbon dioxide (CO2) and solar heating due to molecular oxygen (O2). The mathematical difference between these cooling and heating rates, on a global annual mean basis, effectively constrains the maximum heating rate for the sum of all other processes. The remaining terms, solar heating due to ozone plus a series of exothermic chemical reactions can be expressed as functions of O. This new approach enables a simple mathematical expression that yields the vertical profile of global annual mean “radiatively constrained” atomic oxygen in the mesopause region. The radiatively constrained atomic oxygen depends only on the CO2 cooling rates, O2 solar heating rates, and standard reaction rate coefficients and enthalpies. Radiative cooling and solar heating rates used in these analyses are derived from measurements made by the SABER instrument on the NASA Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics satellite. There is excellent agreement between the SABER radiatively constrained atomic oxygen and that derived from the SABER ozone and OH emission measurements over most of the mesopause region. Radiatively constrained atomic oxygen represents an upper limit on the global average O-atom concentration in the mesopause region.

[1] Atomic oxygen (O) is a fundamental component in chemical aeronomy of Earth's mesosphere and lower thermosphere region extending from approximately 50 km to over 100 km in altitude. Atomic oxygen is notoriously difficult to measure, especially with remote sensing techniques from orbiting satellite sensors. It is typically inferred from measurements of the ozone concentration in the day or from measurements of the Meinel band emission of the hydroxyl radical (OH) at night. The Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the NASA Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite measures OH emission and ozone for the purpose of determining the O-atom concentration. In this paper, we present the algorithms used in the derivation of day and night atomic oxygen from these measurements. We find excellent consistency between the day and night O-atom concentrations from daily to annual time scales. We also examine in detail the collisional relaxation of the highly vibrationally excited OH molecule at night measured by SABER. Large rate coefficients for collisional removal of vibrationally excited OH molecules by atomic oxygen are consistent with the SABER observations if the deactivation of OH(9) proceeds solely by collisional quenching. An uncertainty analysis of the derived atomic oxygen is also given. Uncertainty in the rate coefficient for recombination of O and molecular oxygen is shown to be the largest source of uncertainty in the derivation of atomic oxygen day or night.

Music educators commonly use microphones for live and recorded sound applications. To achieve optimal results in each application, a basic understanding of microphones is necessary. This article discusses each application’s challenges and recommends the best mic to use for optimum sound. Recommendations for further learning are included.

Using music technology is a daily reality for music educators. The task may be as simple as readying a CD player for use in an elementary classroom or as complex as setting up a complete sound system—including microphones, mixer, amplifier, and speakers—for a live music production. One piece of music technology music educators constantly encounter is the audio mixer, usually referred to as “mixer.” Mixers, found everywhere sound is recorded or reproduced, are vital to the sound recording and reproduction process. Yet few teachers are prepared for making more than rudimentary sense of the mixer’s multiple knobs, buttons, and sliders. In this column, a framework is provided for understanding how music educators can better understand mixers by describing a mixer’s essential sections: the input, channel strip, buss, and output sections. This article also offers tips to better enable educators to use mixers.

This article is a preview of Scott Watson’s new book, Using Technology to Unlock Musical Creativity (Oxford University Press, 2011). The book’s main contents are summarized and one of the volume’s 29 lessons is provided to assist readers in evaluating the book for their use. Particular attention is given to Watson’s success in making the connection between the use of technology and creativity, thereby providing music educators a rich resource by which to do the same in their own classrooms.

Select features of interest to music educators are spotlighted in Sibelius 6 (version 6.2.0 build 88) and presented under three headings: (a) Worksheets, (2) Plug-Ins, and (3) Potpourri. Guidance is given for accessing these features, and the commentary suggests their application in the music education classroom.

A feature-laden software program such as Finale is an overwhelming tool to master—if one hopes to master many features in a short amount of time. Believing that working with a fewer number of features can be a helpful approach, this article looks at a select number of features in Finale 2011 of obvious use to music educators. These features are examined under three main headings: (a) Worksheets and Repertoire for Classroom Use, (b) Notation Options, and (c) Music Import/Export Features.

In this article, the historical roots of tablature for stringed instruments are noted, and the use of tablature is explained. Modern guitar tablature is then shown and explained, and the author leads the reader through the basics of using Guitar Pro 6, a guitar tablature program that simultaneously displays standard Western staff notation. The argument is made that using such a program in music education classrooms will build bridges with students whose primary music education experiences occur beyond the classroom.

The Solar Occultation For Ice Experiment (SOFIE) was launched onboard the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) satellite on 25 April 2007, and began science observations on 14 May 2007. SOFIE conducts solar occultation measurements in 16 spectral bands that are used to retrieve vertical profiles of temperature, O3, H2O, CO2, CH4, NO, and polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) extinction at wavelengths from 0.330 to 5.006 μm. SOFIE performs 15 sunset measurements at latitudes from 65° to 85°S and 15 sunrise measurements from 65° to 85°N each day. This work describes the SOFIE instrument, measurement approach, and retrieval results for the northern summer of 2007.

The Nimbus 7 Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) radiance profile dataset of 1978/79 was reconditioned and reprocessed to Version 6 (V6) profiles of temperature and species that are improved significantly over those from Version 5 (V5). The LIMS V6 dataset was archived for public use in 2002. Improvements for its ozone include: (1) a more accurate accounting for instrument and spacecraft motion effects in the radiances, (2) the use of better spectroscopic line parameters for its ozone forward model, (3) retrievals of all its scans, (4) more accurate and compatible temperature versus pressure profiles (or T(p)), which are needed for the registration of the ozone radiances and for the removal of temperature effects from them, and (5) a better accounting for interfering species in the lower stratosphere. The retrieved V6 ozone profiles extend from near cloud top altitudes to about 80 km and from 64S to 84N latitude with better sampling along the orbit than for the V5 dataset. Calculated estimates of the single-profile precision and accuracy are provided for the V6 ozone from this study. Precision estimates based on the data themselves are of order 3% or better from 1 to 30 hPa. Estimates of total systematic error for a single profile are hard to generalize because the separate sources of error may not all be of the same sign and they depend somewhat on the atmospheric state. It is estimated that the V6 zonal mean ozone distributions are accurate to within 9% to 7% from 50 hPa to 3 hPa, respectively. Effects of a temperature bias can be significant and may be present at 1 to 2 hPa though. There may be ozone biases of order 10% at those levels due to possible biases of up to +2 K, but there is no indication of a similar problem elsewhere in the stratosphere. Simulation studies show that the LIMS retrievals are also underestimating slightly the small amplitudes of the atmospheric temperature tides, which affect its retrieved day/night ozone differences. There are small biases in the middle to lower stratosphere for the ascending versus descending node LIMS ozone, due principally to not accounting for the asymmetric weighting of its radiances across the tangent layer. The estimates of total accuracy were assessed by comparing the daily zonal mean LIMS ozone distributions against those from the Nimbus 7 SBUV Version 8 (V8) dataset for the same period. Generally, the LIMS V6 ozone agrees well with SBUV, except perhaps in the tropical lower stratosphere where the LIMS ozone is less. Still, the accuracy for LIMS V6 ozone in the lower stratosphere is improved over that found for LIMS V5, as indicated by several LIMS comparisons with ECC ozonesonde profiles. The LIMS V6 ozone is considered especially suitable for detailed studies of large-scale stratospheric processes above the 100-hPa level. Comparison of diurnal, photochemical model calculations with the monthly-averaged, upper stratospheric ozone observed from LIMS V6 indicates only a slight ozone deficit for the model at about 2 hPa. However, that deficit exhibits little to no seasonal variation and is in good agreement with similar model comparisons for a seasonal time series of ozone obtained with ground-based microwave instruments. Because the LIMS V6 ozone in the lower stratosphere has improved accuracy and sampling versus that of V5, it should now be possible to conduct quantitative studies of ozone transport and chemistry for the northern hemisphere, polar stratospheric winter of 1978/79 a time period when the catalytic loss of ozone due to reactive chlorine should not have been a major factor for the Arctic region.

In areas where fresh water costs and produced water disposal costs become problematic, operators as well as service companies have shown the desire to use produced and flow back water in field operations to enhance the overall completions economics. This paper shows the experience of new Stabilized Crosslinked Fracturing fluid systems pumped in the Permian Basin (West Texas, United States) using borated produced water with levels of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) exceeding 30,000 mg/L. The new Frac fluid systems are developed for temperature ranges between 120-220 °F and designed to delay the crosslinking time when needed, utilizing the boron already present in the water. In addition to the technical success, the back end costs are significantly reduced by transporting produced and/or flowback water to locations for re-use rather than disposing them into well(s) located miles away. This unique Frac fluid systems approach, which conserves fresh water aquifers and recycles produced and flowback water, has broken the code for recycled water and reduced disposal costs significantly. The operators and the service company have pumped numerous stages using only sock filtration to decrease the level of suspended solids in the waste water. This paper reports laboratory testing and case history data.

The Nimbus 7 Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere (LIMS) experiment operated for just over 7 months in 1978/1979, as planned. Its version 5 (V5) dataset was archived for public use in 1983. Subsequently, several important improvements were realized about the LIMS instrument, its forward radiance model, and the line parameters (from HITRAN 92 or 96) for the gases that emit in its broadband spectral channels. In addition, the orbital attitude knowledge for LIMS was refined by comparing the slopes of the observed radiance profiles from its two CO 2 channels within the upper stratosphere through lower mesosphere. This approach also overcomes the usual requirement for absolute radiance calibrations in flight. The band model approximations employed for CO 2 and interfering O 3 and based on HITRAN for the 15-μm region are adequate for accurate retrievals of temperature versus pressure profiles T ( p ). Consequently, a reprocessed or Version 6 (V6) profile dataset was generated using these improved radiance conditioning methods (or Level 1) and the T ( p ) retrieval algorithm (or Level 2), and those updates are described briefly. In particular, the approach for V6 used all the radiance data ( 0.375 km vertical spacing), and the V6 retrievals are based on all the measured radiance profiles along an orbit. Precision and accuracy of the V6 T ( p ) data are improved over that for V5, most noticeably in the mesosphere. Profiles of geopotential height have also been generated as part of the V6 dataset from which one can analyze its horizontal gradients for the wind fields and higher dynamical quantities, rather than mapping the temperature fields first. The entire LIMS V6 profile dataset was archived at the NASA Goddard Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC) in September 2002. The high quality of these V6 data demonstrates more fully the promise of the broadband, limb-infrared remote sensing technique for operational measurements of middle atmosphere T ( p ) from Earth-orbiting satellites.

We present an empirical model of the global infrared energy budget of the thermosphere over the past 70 years. The F(sub 10.7), Ap, and Dst indices are used in linear regression fits to the 14.5 year time series of radiative cooling by carbon dioxide and nitric oxide measured by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the TIMED satellite. Databases of these indices are used to develop the radiative cooling time series from 1947. No consistent relation between the occurrence of peak sunspot number and peak infrared cooling is found over the past six solar cycles. The total infrared energy radiated by the thermosphere, integrated over a solar cycle, is nearly constant over five complete solar cycles studied. This is a direct consequence of the geoeffective solar energy also being nearly constant over the same intervals. These results provide a new metric for assessing the terrestrial context of the long‐term record of solar‐related indices.

Abstract Environmental concerns and public opinion have elevated the visibility of hydraulic fracturing. Currently oil companies and operators acquire fresh water for fracturing treatments on the front end and pay to dispose or transport the flowback or produced water on the back end, increasing dramatically the cost of the hydraulic fracturing job. We report a newly developed fracturing fluid system utilizing 100% untreated produced water which eliminates the upfront costs of purchasing fresh water. In addition, the back end costs are significantly reduced by transporting produced and/or flowback water to locations for re-use rather than to disposal well(s) located miles away or even in other states. This new system uses conventional gelling agents and crosslinkers used in active US shale plays, addressing the fracturing focus initiative. This new fluid system was developed for temperature ranges between 120–300+ °F. Field tests prove shear stability and good proppant transport at 20 BPM through a 1.25 in sliding sleeve baffle. The fracturing fluid system can be designed for instant or delayed crosslinking in recycle water with total dissolved solids exceeding 300,000 mg/L with hardness exceeding 30,000 mg/L. Another concern in the past was the presence of boron in produced water. This system can be used in water containing boron levels exceeding 500 mg/L. The code for recycle water has been broken utilizing this unique fracturing fluid system designed to conserve fresh water aquifers and recycle produced and flowback waters, reducing significantly disposal costs. This paper reports laboratory testing of the fluid characteristics in untreated produced water from the Bakkenas well as the outcome of hybrid fluids in field applications, recommendations for field applications and economic impacts on fracturing fluid systems.

Environmental concerns and public opinion have elevated the visibility of hydraulic fracturing. Currently oil companies and operators acquire fresh water for fracturing treatments on the front end and pay to dispose or transport the flowback or produced water on the back end, increasing dramatically the cost of the hydraulic fracturing job. We report a newly developed fracturing fluid system utilizing 100% untreated produced water which eliminates the upfront costs of purchasing fresh water. In addition, the back end costs are significantly reduced by transporting produced and/or flowback water to locations for re-use rather than to disposal well(s) located miles away or even in other states. This new system uses conventional gelling agents and crosslinkers used in active US shale plays, addressing the fracturing focus initiative. This new fluid system was developed for temperature ranges between 120-300+ °F. Field tests prove shear stability and good proppant transport at 20 BPM through a 1.25 in sliding sleeve baffle. The fracturing fluid system can be designed for instant or delayed crosslinking in recycle water with total dissolved solids exceeding 300,000 mg/L with hardness exceeding 30,000 mg/L. Another concern in the past was the presence of boron in produced water. This system can be used in water containing boron levels exceeding 500 mg/L. The code for recycle water has been broken utilizing this unique fracturing fluid system designed to conserve fresh water aquifers and recycle produced and flowback waters, reducing significantly disposal costs. This paper reports laboratory testing of the fluid characteristics in untreated produced water from the Bakken as well as the outcome of hybrid fluids in field applications, recommendations for field applications and economic impacts on fracturing fluid systems.

[1] The effects of solar cycle 24 are now clearly evident in the infrared radiative cooling of the thermosphere as observed by the SABER instrument on the NASA TIMED satellite. After reaching a minimum in 2009, infrared radiative cooling of the thermosphere by nitric oxide (NO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) has been steadily increasing. The global infrared power radiated by NO in mid-April 2011 is about four times the minimum value while the CO2 power is about 15% larger than at the minimum. In addition, the short-term variability of the NO emission has increased and is strongly correlated with increased geomagnetic variability as inferred from the Ap index. The increasing levels of infrared emission are indicative of a warming thermosphere and possibly increasing levels of atomic oxygen and nitric oxide. However the infrared power presently radiated by NO is only about 40% of the maximum value observed by the SABER instrument in late 2002 while the CO2 power is now about 80% of the maximum observed value. The SABER infrared time series, now approaching 10 years in length, is a unique climate data record for testing the radiative and chemical physics of upper atmosphere general circulation models.

We present observations of the infrared radiative cooling by carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitric oxide (NO) in Earth s thermosphere. These data have been taken over a period of 7 years by the SABER instrument on the NASA TIMED satellite and are the dominant radiative cooling mechanisms for the thermosphere. From the SABER observations we derive vertical profiles of radiative cooling rates (W/cu m), radiative fluxes (W/sq m), and radiated power (W). In the period from January 2002 through January 2009 we observe a large decrease in the cooling rates, fluxes, and power consistent with the declining phase of solar cycle. The power radiated by NO during 2008 when the Sun exhibited few sunspots was nearly one order of magnitude smaller than the peak power observed shortly after the mission began. Substantial short-term variability in the infrared emissions is also observed throughout the entire mission duration. Radiative cooling rates and radiative fluxes from NO exhibit fundamentally different latitude dependence than do those from CO2, with the NO fluxes and cooling rates being largest at high latitudes and polar regions. The cooling rates are shown to be derived relatively independent of the collisional and radiative processes that drive the departure from local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) in the CO2 15 m and the NO 5.3 m vibration-rotation bands. The observed NO and CO2 cooling rates have been compiled into a separate dataset and represent a climate data record that is available for use in assessments of radiative cooling in upper atmosphere general circulation models.

The Digital Array Gas Radiometer (DAGR) concept is based on traditional and reliable Gas Filter Correlation Radiometry (GFCR) for remote trace gas detection and monitoring. GFCR sensors have been successful in many infrared remote sensing applications. Historically however, solar backscatter measurements have not been as successful because instrument designs have been susceptible to natural variations in surface albedo, which induce clutter and degrade the sensitivity. DAGR overcomes this limitation with several key innovations. First, a pupil imaging system scrambles the received light, removing nearly all spatial clutter and permitting a small calibration source to be easily inserted. Then, by using focal plane arrays rather than single detectors to collect the light, dramatic advances in dynamic range can be achieved. Finally, when used with the calibration source, data processing approaches can further mitigate detector non-uniformity effects. DAGR sensors can be made as small as digital cameras and are well suited for downlooking detection of gases in the boundary layer, where solar backscatter measurements are needed to overcome the lack of thermal contrast in the IR. Easily integrated into a satellite platform, a space-based DAGR would provide near-global sensing of climatically important species such as such as CO, CH 4 , and N 2 O. Aircraft and UAV measurements with a DAGR could be used to monitor agricultural and industrial emissions. Ground-based or portable DAGRs could augment early warning systems for chemical weapons or toxic materials. Finally, planetary science applications include detection and mapping of biomarkers such as CH 4 in the Martian atmosphere.

We examine time series of the daily global power (W) radiated by carbon dioxide (at 15 microns) and by nitric oxide (at 5.3 microns) from the Earth s thermosphere between 100 km and 200 km altitude. Also examined is a time series of the daily absorbed solar ultraviolet power in the same altitude region in the wavelength span 0 to 175 nm. The infrared data are derived from the SABER instrument and the solar data are derived from the SEE instrument, both on the NASA TIMED satellite. The time series cover nearly 5 years from 2002 through 2006. The infrared and solar time series exhibit a decrease in radiated and absorbed power consistent with the declining phase of the current 11-year solar cycle. The infrared time series also exhibits high frequency variations that are not evident in the solar power time series. Spectral analysis shows a statistically significant 9-day periodicity in the infrared data but not in the solar data. A very strong 9-day periodicity is also found to exist in the time series of daily A(sub p) and K(sub p) geomagnetic indexes. These 9-day periodicities are linked to the recurrence of coronal holes on the Sun. These results demonstrate a direct coupling between the upper atmosphere of the Sun and the infrared energy budget of the thermosphere.

The powerful influence of the writings of Charles Darwin (Darwin, 1859) changed the definition of the word “evolution.” Prior to Darwin, the word was a relatively unpopular synonym for the word “development.” Developmental concepts had been used in numerous descriptive hypotheses from Vico (Vico, 1974) and Condorcet (Condorect, 1795) to Hegel (Hegel, 1861) and Comte (Comte, 1854). These studies were more celebrations of various “stages” of human progress through assumedly productive learning than predictive or explanatory analyses of the developmental process. A similarly non-rationalized optimism was found in Lamarck’s (Lamarck, 1809) influential work on animal development through inheritable environmental adaptations. Darwin’s theory burst these and related bubbles by arguing that the relatively fit have survived regardless of whether progress or retrogression has taken place. Nothing, not even divine planning, provided a better explanation of the observable characteristics of natural organisms. By the end of the 19th century, then, “evolution” came to predominantly signify a process of development in which a biological or social characteristic becomes more or less prevalent in the population depending on its ability to enhance its possessor’s survival.

We present direct observational evidence for solar cycle influence on the infrared energy budget and radiative cooling of the thermosphere. By analyzing nearly five years of data from the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument, we show that the annual mean infrared power radiated by the nitric oxide (NO) molecule at 5.3 m has decreased by a factor of 2.9. This decrease is correlated (r = 0.96) with the decrease in the annual mean F10.7 solar index. Despite the sharp decrease in radiated power (which is equivalent to a decrease in the vertical integrated radiative cooling rate), the variability of the power as given in the standard deviation of the annual means remains approximately constant. A simple relationship is shown to exist between the infrared power radiated by NO and the F10.7 index, thus providing a fundamental relationship between solar activity and the thermospheric cooling rate for use in thermospheric models. The change in NO radiated power is also consistent with changes in absorbed ultraviolet radiation over the same time period.

We report observations of the daytime O 2 ( 1 Δ) airglow emission at 1.27 μm recorded by the Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) instrument on the NASA Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) satellite. The measured limb radiances are inverted to yield vertical profiles of the volume emission rate of energy from the O 2 molecule. From these emission rates we subsequently derive the mesospheric ozone concentrations using a nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium (non-LTE) radiative and kinetic model. Rates of energy deposition due to absorption of ultraviolet radiation in the Hartley band of ozone are also derived, independent of knowledge of the ozone abundance and solar irradiances. Atomic oxygen concentrations are obtained from the ozone abundance using photochemical steady state assumptions. Rates of energy deposition due to exothermic chemical reactions are also derived. The data products illustrated here are from a test day (4 July 2002) of SABER Version 1.07 data which are now becoming publicly available. This test day illustrates the high quality of the SABER O 2 ( 1 Δ) airglow and ozone data and the variety of fundamental science questions to which they can be applied.

[1] Solar occultation measurement of atmospheric species with short photochemical lifetimes poses some difficulties if sharp gradients are present in the species concentrations near sunrise/sunset conditions. These photochemically induced variations introduce asymmetries in the species distribution along the line of sight that need to be taken into account in the retrieval process in order to prevent inaccuracies. Correction factors derived from photochemical model calculations have been routinely applied to the retrievals of stratospheric NO and NO2 by HALOE and ATMOS experiments. Mesospheric ozone, because of its twilight variations, also belongs to the group of species which require a correction procedure. Results from our mesospheric diurnal photochemical model indicate that proper accounting of diurnal variations leads to more than 20% increase in the ozone column along the line of sight for sunrise conditions near 0.1 hPA at the equator in January. Correspondingly, the retrieved ozone at the tangent point will be lower if these twilight variations are considered. The effects under sunset conditions are smaller. The current HALOE retrieval algorithm uses an approximate correction for mesospheric ozone. We have developed a new database of twilight gradients for the entire altitude range of HALOE measurements based on the results from a contemporary diurnal photochemical model. HALOE scans for January 29, 1992, have been reprocessed using the new diurnal correction factors. Sunrise ozone mixing ratios near 0.1 hPa are smaller by more than 20% compared to the HALOE V19 data. The differences between the corrections for sunrise and sunset retrievals suggest that, with the new diurnal corrections, the sunrise to sunset ozone ratios near 0.1 hPa obtained from approximately coincident HALOE data will be in much better agreement with the values derived from photochemical theory.

[1] We present a new retrieval technique for mesospheric measurements from the Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE). Previous HALOE retrievals did not account for polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) and were biased whenever PMCs were in the sample volume. In the new algorithm we eliminate this bias by retrieving and correcting for PMC extinction, and we optimize the algorithm for this region of the atmosphere. We have reprocessed over ten years (1991–2002) of HALOE data with the improved algorithm, yielding nearly 75,000 vertical profiles of temperature, H2O, O3, NO and extinction at five infrared wavelengths. In this paper we describe the new algorithm in detail, present several examples of the results and discuss some initial validation and quality assessments.

Solar occultation measurements from satellite have been very successful at sounding the upper atmosphere from cloud-top to well into the mesosphere (e.g. HALOE, ATMOS, SAGE, POAM). The HALOE instrument achieves transmission precision of 4 X10-6 at 2 arcminute resolution (1.6 Km at the Earth limb) with the differential gas correlation technique. With modern detectors, high precision tracking, better throughput and differential broadband radiometry, achievable precision should approach 10-7 (~10-9 km-1 extinction) or better. We show that this will allow accurate sounding of CO2, O3, H2O and NO mixing ratios simultaneously with temperature and pressure well into the lower thermosphere. In addition, such precision could provide the first mapping of the Earth's cosmic dust layer.© (2002) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

The use of limb radiation measurements to infer atmospheric parameters continues to be a popular technique. The HALOE (Halogen Occultation Experiment) instrument is a gas correlation radiometer on board the UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) that performs solar occultation measurements for inferring vertical profiles of HF, HCl, CH 4 , NO, O 3 , H 2 O, NO 2 , aerosol extinction and temperature. The first four gases and aerosol are inferred from gas correlation measurements. The remainder are inferred from broadband (> 20 cm -1 ) radiometer measurements. The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo before the UARS launch presented a number of challenges for HALOE data processing. Although ideally the gas correlation technique is insensitive to aerosol, in practice the aerosol signature induces optical effects that must be accurately addressed. The inference of extinction profiles for modeling aerosol signature in the radiometer channels was found to require high vertical resolution. The impact due to vertical resolution and other optical effects on the retrieved results is discussed. Simulations and HALOE results are presented to demonstrate and validate the effects. It is found that the Pinatubo layering demands a vertical resolution on the order of 2 km or less to accurately model aerosol effects on broadband limb viewing radiometers.

The Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) operated in orbit for over 14 years, providing high quality measurements from the upper troposphere into the lower thermosphere. Since the quality of this data set depended on the long-term stability of the instrument, a series of analysis tests were designed to routinely monitor instrument performance. These tests evaluated possible changes in the gas cells, electronic gains, optical performance, and signal temperature dependencies. The gas cell stability was determined from an analysis of the Doppler shift signature in retrieved mixing ratios. Electronic gain stability was determined by instrument scans of the solar disk, each with different balance settings. Optical and tracking performance was also determined from solar scan data. The only statistically significant changes detected were: 1. a small methane gas cell change, causing less than 0.5% per decade change in retrieved methane, and 2. a small optical alignment change in the HF channel that only affects HF results below 25 kilometers. These detailed analyses indicate that the HALOE instrument remained stable throughout the mission, adding confidence to the long-term atmospheric trends deduced from HALOE products.

The Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) conducted satellite solar occultation measurements for 14 years ending on 21 November 2005. HALOE contained a calibration wheel, which included three neutral density filters that were used to examine response linearity through a combination of ground and on-orbit measurements. Although measurement uncertainties preclude a confident assessment of the true extent of nonlinearity, the on-orbit data lead to the conclusion that any existing response nonlinearity has changed by less than 2% over the mission lifetime. This conclusion eliminates a potentially significant uncertainty when using HALOE data for studies of long-term atmospheric trends.

The excess of wages in risky over safe occupations provides a relatively culture–free measure of the welfare level of ordinary people. In contrast, conventional welfare measures are highly dependent on culture and therefore of little use in making cross–country welfare comparisons. The available international data reveal that the incomes of individuals in European cultures must be expanded approximately six times in order to achieve the same welfare levels (risky/safe wage differentials) obtained in non–European cultures. Alternative hypotheses explaining this large differential are developed and tested, the most satisfactory being that 19Ih century Western educational reforms generated a welfare–decreasing relative–income effect.

Nitrogen-broadened halfwidths for seven lines in the fundamental infrared band of HF have been determined from laboratory measurements at room temperature. The spectra were recorded using a Fourier transform spectrometer with a nominal resolution of 0.0603 cm −1 . A nonlinear least-squares spectral-fitting technique was used in the data analysis to obtain halfwidth values for the P 3 through R 3 lines, with an average uncertainty of approximately 15%.

Lyman Beecher's approach to antislavery reform has received remarkably little attention from historians. No thorough study has been made of his attitudes toward chattel slavery, the methods he advanced to ameliorate or eradicate it, and his feelings toward free blacks and their future in America. The interpretations that have been proposed have been deficient in design, superficial in exposition and misleading in conclusion.