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An increasing number of U.S. high school graduates enter college while still in the process of learning English. Referred to as generation 1.5 students because they share characteristics of both first- and second-generation immigrants, they do not fit into any of the traditional categories of nonnative English speakers enrolled in college writing courses, nor have they been the focus of much research on students learning to write in English as a second language. Familiar with U.S. culture and schooling, generation 1.5 students have different learning needs from other English language learners, such as immigrants with limited English proficiency and international students who travel to the United States for the express purpose of earning an American college degree. This digest discusses some of the special needs of generation 1.5 students in the area of writing instruction and explores issues faced by English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) and college writing programs in providing these students with appropriate writing instruction at the college level. (Author/VWL)

Modeled after the pioneering French immersion programs developed in Canada in the 1960s, foreign language immersion programs in the United States are designed to enrich the education of native-English-speaking students by teaching them all of their academic subjects in a second language. The goal is for students to become proficient in the second language and develop increased cultural awareness while reaching a high level of academic achievement. Students develop proficiency in the second language by hearing and using it to learn all of their school subjects rather than by studying the language itself. Parents who are considering an immersion program for their child usually have many questions. This digest provides introductory responses to some of the questions most commonly posed by parents such as the following: What is a foreign language immersion program and how does it work? How will learning everything in a second language affect my child's English language and literacy development? Will my child become proficient in the second language? How long will that take? Is immersion an appropriate choice for all children? What can I do to support my child's immersion experience if I don't speak the second language? Immersion education offers an exciting opportunity for students to reach high levels of academic achievement and to acquire strong proficiency in English and another language. Parents who are interested in immersion for their children should become as well informed as possible about this program model. (Author/VWL)

Students of foreign language are being encouraged to learn and use a broad range of language learning strategies that can be tapped throughout the learning process. This approach is based on the belief that learning will be facilitated by making students aware of the range of strategies from which they can choose during language learning and use. The most efficient way to heighten learner awareness is to provide strategy training--explicit instruction in how to apply language learning strategies--as part of the foreign language curriculum. This digest discusses the goals of strategy training, highlights approaches to such training, and lists steps for designing strategy training programs. The guidelines for implementing strategy training programs provide a variety of options for tailoring the training to meet the needs of a large number of students, as well as to the needs of the individual institution or language program. The most important considerations in the design of a strategy training program are the students' needs, the available resources (e.g, time, money, materials, availability of teacher trainers), and the feasibility of providing this kind of instruction. (VWL)

This digest provides general information on the characteristics of English language learners (ELLs) in U.S. preschool and primary school programs and describes learning conditions and instructional practices that are most effective for educating young ELLs. The digest suggests that as young ELLs enroll in preschool and primary school programs in record numbers, educators must continually strive to provide effective, nurturing environments and developmentally and linguistically appropriate instruction for all learners. This instruction should take into consideration the characteristics of young English language learners and their language development, the learning conditions that are most effective for these learners, and the kinds of instruction that best meet their needs. (Author/VWL)

Schools and school districts across the United States are establishing and expanding foreign language programs. Although most programs are found at the secondary school level, an increasing number are being established in elementary schools. A survey by the Center for Applied Linguistics indicates that 31% of U.S. elementary schools are offering foreign language instruction, up from 22% a decade ago. In the late 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education funded an effort to identify early foreign language programs that could serve as models for schools or districts interested in establishing or enhancing early-start, long-sequence foreign language programs. Seven model programs were identified through a nomination and selection process informed by the national standards for foreign language education and by research on effective language instruction for elementary and middle school students. The programs selected met specified criteria in the areas of curriculum, outcomes, ongoing evaluation, coordination with content areas, articulation from elementary to secondary school, accessibility, student diversity, professional development opportunities, and community support. Although the seven programs represent a range of program models and instructional strategies, they had a number of critical elements in common. This digest describes these elements, which are deemed key to the long-term success of early foreign language programs. (VWL)

The wealth of information available on the Web affords teachers and learners access to language learning resources like never before. Online journals, listservs, newspapers, and magazines provide authentic material for language learners, while teachers can find lesson plans and ideas, exercises, assessment tools, and other materials for use in their classes. The World Wide Web's capability for interactivity makes it especially exciting as a resource for language teaching and learning. Online language tutorials, exercises, and tests are available to anyone who has access to the Web. This accessibility makes Web-based language learning activities quite attractive to both instructors and learners. Teachers can even create their own interactive language learning activities on the Web, which allows them to tailor the activities to suit their own courses and students. This digest discusses some of the advantages and challenges for teachers who want to design their own interactive Web-based language learning activities, describes some of the activities produced by language teachers that are already available on the Web, and provides guidelines and resources to help teachers create Web-based activities of their own. (Contains 14 endnotes and 3 references.) (Author)

In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. Some learned English as children; others learned it as adults. Some learned it prior to coming to the United States; others learned it after their arrival. Some studied English in formal academic settings; others learned it through informal immersion after arriving in this country. Some speak British, Australian, Indian, or other varieties of English; others speak Standard American English. For some, English is their third or fourth language; for others, it is the only language other than their mother tongue that they have learned. The strengths of these individuals as English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) teachers are still somewhat unknown and are often underestimated by their colleagues and students. This digest describes the contributions that these educators can make to the ELT field, some of the challenges they face as teaching professionals, and ways in which these challenges are being addressed. (Contains 17 references.) (Author/VWL)

Recent legislation and education initiatives in the United States have emphasized the role of high-stakes testing in reform movements designed to increase accountability for schools and improve student achievement. This digest suggests that because English language learners (ELLs) represent an increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. public schools, this group of learners must be considered when such initiatives are implemented. Educators must make critical decisions concerning how to include ELLs in high-stakes tests in ways that are fair and that address their needs. Factors to consider include the selection of appropriate testing accommodations and the accurate interpretation of test results. Specific sections address the following: the role of high-stakes tests; why to include ELLs in high-stakes tests; potential problems of including ELLs in high-stakes tests; and accommodations for ELLs. A section on what educators can do offers the following suggestions: (1) ensure that the test reflects the curriculum; (2) select appropriate accommodations and modifications; (3) teach the discourse of tests and test-taking skills; and (4) use test data carefully. (Author/VWL)

The incorporation of age- and language-appropriate thematic literature into the early childhood curriculum can stimulate content-based academic learning for English language learners (ELLs). This systematic approach is particularly beneficial to young ELLs ages 3 through 8, because it provides background knowledge and cultural information along with opportunities to hear, speak, and interact with carefully crafted language in thematic and story contexts. It also develops literacy in an engaging and playful context. For example, a well-chosen picture book can provide a meaningful focus for developing reading skills such as vocabulary and comprehension, as well as an awareness of sounds and sound-letter relationships. While this careful introduction to reading is important for all children in Grades preK-3, it is critical for the growing population of young ELLs. Almost half (47%) of the K-12 ELL school population reported by grade (1999-2000) is enrolled in Grades K-3, representing about 1.3 million children. Many of these children are interacting socially beyond the home and family for the first time, hearing extensive English, being exposed to books and read aloud to, and functioning as part of a learning community. This digest provides early childhood educators with book selection criteria, literature-based teaching strategies, curricular topics, and book lists for representative topics appropriate for use with ELLs in early childhood settings. (Contains 11 references.) (Author/VWL)

Immigrant students in secondary schools face a number of obstacles as they make the transition to schooling in the United States. In addition to adjusting to a new country and school system, they must also learn academic content in a new language. Because these students come from a variety of ethnic, educational, and economic backgrounds, representing a host of cultures, languages, and educational needs, it is often difficult to provide instruction tailored to their specific needs. Developing the English language proficiency of these students so they can participate effectively in mainstream English classes has long been a major focus of those working with newcomers in secondary school. However, educators are also looking for ways to help them achieve at high academic levels, which involves reading English well, understanding academic discourse, writing coherently, and speaking English at cognitively complex and abstract levels. These students usually have only a few years to master these skills. This digest describes ways to develop students' English language and literacy skills and to make academic content challenging, interesting, and accessible. They include the following: (1) building conceptual frameworks for new knowledge; (2) teaching learning strategies; (3) focusing on reading in all classes; (4) giving students opportunities to engage in free reading; and (5) helping students move beyond the text. (Author/VWL)

This digest describes some of the issues involved in the Spanish language learning experiences of heritage Spanish speakers, the largest population of heritage language speakers in the United States. It describes ways in which educators can facilitate these students' language development through a better understanding of their language learning strategies and suggests areas in which further research is needed. (Author/VWL)

Despite three decades of research on African American English (AAE), educational workshops aimed at improving the academic achievement, particularly the literacy achievement, of African American students still emphasize differences between Standard English and African American English. One result is that teachers may overlook the linguistic resources of their African American students. A challenge for the research community now is to investigate how features of African American English might be used instructionally. Several researchers have noted teachers1 use of call-and-response--rapid verbal interaction between speaker and listener that has its origins in religious tradition--in classrooms composed of African American students. This digest presents a working definition of call-and-response, discusses relevant research on the use of this interactional strategy for instructional purposes, and presents examples from an ongoing study of elementary school classrooms to illustrate some of the fundamental, explanatory dimensions of this discourse pattern. (AA)

This digest reports on a study that examined the impact of participation in a two-way immersion program on the language and achievement outcomes of former program participants and on their current schooling path and college plans. The study explored outcomes for three groups of students: (1) Hispanic students who began the two-way program as English language learners; (2) Hispanic students who began the program as English-only or English-dominant speakers; and (3) European American students who entered the program as monolingual speakers of English. The results of this study are impressive on two counts. First, they demonstrate that high school students who participated in the two-way program developed high levels of academic competence and motivation, ambitions to go to college, knowledge about how to apply to and get into college, and pride in bilingualism. In addition, they were highly satisfied with their education in the two-way program. Results of the study point to the development of a sense of resiliency among Hispanic students, particularly those learning English and those from low-income families. These students appear to possess high self-esteem, motivation to study hard, belief in academic competence, perception of a positive school environment, a supportive family, and a peer group that values education-characteristics that have been identified with resilient and successful students, that is, those living in adversity or from high-risk environments but who are well adjusted and achieve academic success. (Author/VWL)

Rapid demographic changes and an increasing recognition of the critical need for professionals who are proficient in languages other than English have led to an interest in developing language programs and classes for "heritage language learners" students who are raised in a home where a non-English language is spoken and who speak or at least understand that language. The fastest growing heritage language population in the United States is Hispanic Americans, and the number of Spanish speakers studying Spanish is on the rise. As a result, language educators are developing programs, classes, and instructional strategies to address the needs of these students, which are different from those of native-English-speaking students studying Spanish as a foreign language. Appropriate instructional materials are essential for these classes, which are often referred to as Spanish for Spanish speakers (SNS) classes. Although the development of SNS materials has a 30-year history, and many new SNS textbooks and materials continue to appear, developing a well-articulated sequence for SNS instruction continues to be a challenge. The purpose of this digest is to raise awareness of the range of SNS materials available to teachers and school districts, and to emphasize the importance of articulated SNS programs with well-sequenced materials. It describes published resources that list and review available SNS materials and gives an overview of the types of materials available. It also provides guidelines for selecting textbooks and other materials for SNS classes or for classes with both English-speaking and Spanish-speaking students. (VWL)

This digest outlines the reasons for and challenges of developing the language skills of heritage language speakers and describes one effort to carry this out, the Heritage Languages Initiative. Specific sections address the following: developing language skills of U.S. residents; the range of language proficiencies of heritage language speakers; the fragility of heritage languages; limitations of current language programs; deficits in infrastructure; and the formation of the Heritage Languages Initiative. (VWL)

This digest examines the role metacognition can play in the teaching and learning of a second language. Understanding and controlling cognitive processes may be one of the most essential skills that classroom teachers can help second language learners develop. Rather than focus students' attention solely on learning the language, second language teachers can help students learn to think about what happens during the language learning process, which will lead to the development of stronger learning skills. The digest highlights a model of metacognition that is made up of five primary components: preparing and planning for learning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, orchestrating various strategies, and evaluating strategy use and learning. Also discussed is the interaction of metacognitive skills. (VWL)

Students fail in school for a variety of reasons. In some cases, their academic difficulties can be directly attributed to deficiencies in the teaching and learning environment. For example, students with limited English may fail because they do not have access to effective bilingual or English as a second language (ESL) instruction. Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may have difficulty if instruction presumes middle-class experiences. Other students may have learning difficulties stemming from linguistic or cultural differences. These difficulties may become more serious over time if instruction is not modified to address the students' specific needs. Unless these students receive appropriate intervention, they will continue to struggle, and the gap between their achievement and that of their peers will widen over time. Still other students need specialized instruction because of specific learning disabilities. The over representation of English language learners in special education classes suggests that educators have difficulty distinguishing students who truly have learning disabilities from students who are failing for other reasons, such as limited English. Students learning English are disadvantaged by a scarcity of appropriate assessment instruments and a lack of personnel trained to conduct linguistically and culturally relevant educational assessments (Valdes & Figueroa, 1996). English language learners who need special education services are further disadvantaged by the shortage of special educators who are trained to address their language- and disability-related needs simultaneously.Improving the academic performance of students who from non-English backgrounds requires a focus on the prevention of failure and on early intervention for struggling learners. This digest presents a framework for meeting the needs of these students in general education and suggests ways to operationalize prevention and early intervention to ensure that students meet their academic potential. (Author/VWL)

The increasing number of students who enter U.S. schools from homes where languages other than English are spoken, and the recognition that proficiency in non-English languages is a valuable national resource, have generated interest in the field of heritage language instruction. A heritage language student is a language student who is raised in a home where a non-English language is spoken, who speaks or at least understands the language, and who is to some degree bilingual in that language and in English. The fastest growing heritage language population in the United States is Spanish-speaking immigrants and Americans of Hispanic descent whose families came from Central America, Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and South America. The inclusion of Spanish-speaking students in foreign language classes places additional demands on teachers, who may be prepared to teach only speakers of English. As a result, a growing number of secondary schools, colleges, and universities in states with large Hispanic populations offer separate Spanish for Native Speakers (SNS) courses or programs tailored to the needs of these students. Specific sections address the following: the need for special courses, student characteristics, goals of SNS instruction, evaluating the goals, program design, instructional strategies, and materials. (Author/VWL)

The study of dialects offers a fascinating approach to learning about language. By learning about how language varies geographically and socially, students will come to understand that language changes over time, and that language use is linked to social identity. Language variation, or dialect diversity, reflects the fact that languages change over time and that people who live in the same geographical area or maintain the same social identity share language norms. Although dialects differ geographically and socially, no dialect is better structurally than another. While many people believe there to be only one correct form of a language, what is standard actually varies from dialect to dialect. If people have a better understanding of how language works, they would probably be less inclined to make negative judgments about speakers of different dialects. This digest addresses some of the difficulties teachers may encounter in teaching about dialects and provides several activities for helping students learn more about language and understand that language variation is a natural phenomenon. (VWL)

This digest describes the implementation of a successful district-wide elementary school foreign language (FLES) program that resulted from the superintendent's vision to have all students in the district study a common foreign language throughout their schooling. This vision was based on the superintendent's belief that American secondary school graduates in the 21st century will be competing for positions in which bilingual language proficiency will offer a considerable advantage. The digest highlights five overarching themes believed to be key to the success of the program: careful and collaborative planning and evaluation; gradual program expansion; attention to progress in proficiency; high quality foreign language faculty; and reflective practitioners. (VWL)

This digest focuses on the application of discourse analysis to second language teaching and learning. It provides examples of how teachers can improve their teaching practices by investigating actual language use both in and out of the classroom, and how students can learn language through exposure to different types of discourse. (VWL)

During the last decade, new efforts have aimed at improving foreign language education in the United States. A recent study concerned with the need to strengthen foreign language skills among U.S. students examined the successes of other countries. Conducted by the Center for Applied Linguistics, the study collected information from 22 educators in 19 countries about foreign language instruction in their elementary and secondary schools. The countries represented in the study are Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Israel, Italy, Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Spain, and Thailand. Information was also gathered on China, England, and Hong Kong from comparative education reports. Study participants responded to a series of questions about language teaching methodologies, strategies, and policies in their countries that could inform language teaching in the United States. Answers to the key question, "What do you think are three of the most successful aspects of foreign language education in your country?" allowed study researchers to identify eight exemplary characteristics of foreign language education in the countries surveyed. This digest examines these characteristics and discusses what the United States can learn from them. (VWL)

This digest focuses on teaching integrated skills in the English-as-a-Second/Foreign-Language classroom (ESL/EFL). Segregated-skill instruction is examined and two types of integrated-skills instruction are highlighted: content-based instruction and task-based instruction. The advantages of integrated-skill instruction are discussed, and five steps for teachers to take in integrating language skills in the ESL/EFL classroom are provided. (VWL)

This paper gives an overview of 10 directions language teachers might take in the future. After providing background on the history of language teaching, language teaching methodology is defined and a distinction is made between methodologies and approaches. Next, the 10 scenarios are briefly described. They include the following: teacher/learner collaborates; method synergistics; curriculum developmentalism; content-basics; multintelligencia; total functional response; strategopedia; lexical phraseology; o-zone whole language; and full-frontal communicativity. (VWL)

This digest provides an overview of the methodological foundations underlying the lexical approach to language teaching and the pedagogical implications suggested by them. The lexical approach has received interest in recent years as an alternative to grammar-based approaches. It concentrates on developing learners' proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations. It is based on the idea that an important part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or "chunks," and that these chunks become the raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of as grammar. Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that occur frequently in spoken language. Advances in computer-based studies of language, such as corpus linguistics, have provided huge databases of language corpora that have examined patterns of phrase and clause sequences as they appear in various texts as well as in spoken language. Lexical items include words, polywords, collocations or word partnerships, institutionalized utterances, and sentence frames and heads. (Contains 15 references.) (VWL)

Since 1991, the Center for Applied Linguistics has monitored the growth of two-way immersion (TWI) programs in the United States. This information is published online in the Directory of Two-Way Immersion Programs in the United States (2000), accessible at http://www.cal.org/twi/directory. Programs listed in the Directory conform to this general definition of TWI through adherence to the following criteria: (1) language-minority and language-majority students are integrated for at least 50% of the day at all grade levels; (2) content and literacy instruction in both languages are provided to all students; and (3) language-minority and language-majority students are balanced, with each group making up one-third to two-thirds of the total student population. The information in the Directory is self-reported; it is based on responses to a questionnaire completed by representatives of the programs listed. A new feature of the directory is a search function that makes it possible to identify programs that share characteristics, such as location, student demographics, and program design. This digest summarizes findings from data in the directory regarding features of TWI programs, students, and staff. National data are presented, along with similar data from the three states with the most programs--California (86), Texas (34), and New York (20). (JSS)

This digest discusses a study that examined the impact of sociocultural factors on the interactions between Latino language minority students and Latino paraeducators and the relationships that result from these interactions. The study explored whether a knowledge of students' culture and communities, primary language, and interaction styles helps paraeducators and their cooperating teachers meet the students' academic and social needs. The study took place in two large, inner-city public elementary schools in Southern California that serve low-income Latino language minority children. Paraeducators were the subject of the study, because they often live in the communities in which they work and likely share a knowledge of the students' culture. The premise of the study was that these paraeducators would prove to be important resources for tapping into students' prior knowledge and for providing cultural scaffolding. Participants were 32 Latino paraeducators, 8 of whom had recently become teachers. Each participant was interviewed individually and was observed working with students in the classroom. The paraeducators also engaged in informal conversations with study researchers. Topics explored included teacher beliefs, school roles, the role of culture and language in learning, and student-teacher relationships. Findings and implications are discussed. (VWL)

This digest discusses the simulated oral proficiency interview (SOPI), a performance-based, tape-mediated speaking test. The SOPI follows the general structure of the oral proficiency interview (OPI) used by government agencies and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) to measure speaking proficiency. Whereas the OPI is a face-to-face interview, the SOPI relies on audiotaped instructions and a test booklet to elicit language from the examinee. Unlike many semi-direct tests, the SOPI contextualizes all tasks to ensure that they appear as authentic as possible. The prototypical SOPI follows the same four phases as the OPI: warm-up, level checks, probes, and wind-down. The warm-up phase, designed to ease examinees into the test format, begins with simple personal background questions posed on the tape in a simulated encounter with a native speaker of the target language. The examinee responds to each warm-up question during a brief pause on the tape after each question. The next phase of the test consists of tasks similar to the level check and probe phases of the OPI. These tasks assess the examinee's ability to perform different functions at the ACTFL Intermediate, Advanced, and Superior levels. The prototypical SOPI includes picture-based tasks that allow examinees to perform tasks such as asking questions, giving directions based on a simple map, describing a place, or narrating a sequence of events based on the illustrations provided. Other SOPI tasks require examinees to speak about selected topics or perform in real-life situations. (VWL)

This digest discusses the rationale behind and development of the English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) standards. To ensure that English language learners (ELLs) would have access to effective educational programs and the opportunity to reach high standards, the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) decided to pursue the development of the ESL standards. A conceptual framework that articulated TESOL's vision of effective education for ELLs was drafted. The framework calls on all educational personnel to assume responsibility for ELLs and demands that schools provide these students with access to all services, such as gifted and talented courses. The framework also lists principles of second language acquisition and explains the benefits of bilingualism and the contribution of native language proficiency to the development of English. Nine ESL content standards are organized under three educational goals. They state what students should know and be able to do as a result of ESL instruction and set goals for students' social and academic language development and sociocultural competence. The ESL standards are listed in the digest. Discussion highlights what the standards mean for educators, implementation of the ESL Standards, and future directions. (VWL)

Schools and teacher education programs have begun to rethink preservice and inservice professional development to take into account the need for teachers to work effectively with students learning English. New approaches to teacher education are based on the belief that English language learners' access to challenging content can be enhanced through teaching strategies that provide multiple pathways to the understanding of language and content. Because students must use language to acquire academic content in mainstream classes, second language teaching must be integrated with the social, cultural, and political contexts of language use. This digest first provides a summary of some of the problems associated with traditional teacher education, including a failure to see the interconnectedness between first and second languages and cultures; fragmentation and isolation of language teaching and learning; view of language; paralyzing focus on methodology; and the disjuncture between language and culture. It then describes preservice and inservice programs that prepare teachers to work effectively with English language learners. (VWL)

In an effort to inform foreign language teaching efforts in elementary and secondary schools in the United States, a small-scale, 3-month exploratory study was designed to collect information that would highlight what was most interesting and illuminating about foreign language education in various countries. Twenty-two educators from 19 countries responded to a series of questions about methodologies, strategies, and policies in their communities that could help improve language teaching in the United States. From their responses, specific policies and practices were identified that could inform American language education. These characteristics are described in this report. The following implications for American schools were drawn from the study results: start language education early; learn from other countries' successes and failures; conduct long-term research; push for stronger federal leadership in language teaching; identify how technology can improve language instruction; improve teacher education; develop appropriate language assessment instruments; designate foreign language as a core subject; and take advantage of the rich sociolinguistic context in the United States. It is apparent that Americans can learn a lot from other countries in this area. The entire language education profession could benefit from systematic international collaboration in language teaching efforts. Three appendices contain a review of selected comparative language studies, a list of countries and language educators contacted, and a cover letter and sample questions. (Contains 39 references.) (KFT)

There has been a longstanding interest among second and foreign language educators in research on language and the brain. By understanding how the brain learns naturally, language teachers may be better able to enhance their effectiveness in the classroom. This digest examines current brain research and discusses its implications for second language learning. Sections include the following: (1) Brain Development: Can Teaching Make a Difference? (2) Learning through Connections; and (3) Are All Brains the Same? The digest suggests that our understanding of the brain is continually evolving, and thus our interpretation of the implications of findings from brain-based research for teaching and learning should also continually evolve. Brain research cannot prescribe what we should teach, how we should organize complex sequences of teaching, or how we should work with students with special needs. Educators should not abandon their traditional sources of insight and guidance when it comes to planning effective instruction. They should continue to draw on and develop their own insights about learning based on their classroom experiences and classroom-based research to complement the insights that are emerging from advances in brain research. (VWL)

There has been a significant increase in new foreign language programs at the elementary school level in recent years. Many of these programs, often referred to as foreign language in the elementary school or FLES programs, have been implemented to comply with state mandates, while others have been developed in response to parental pressure for early language learning opportunities for their children. Many of these programs risk failure, because of planning decisions that were not carefully thought out or that were based on inaccurate assumptions about foreign language learning. The purpose of this digest is to identify some common pitfalls in program planning and to focus attention on issues that must be considered in the planning stages if early foreign language programs are to succeed. Pitfalls discussed include the following: scheduling foreign language classes too infrequently or in sessions that are too short; treating foreign languages differently from other academic subjects; offering only commonly taught languages, without considering other important world languages; implementing a new program in all grades at the same time; ignoring the needs of students who enter the program in later grades; failing to plan for appropriate articulation from elementary to secondary school programs; hiring teachers who do not have both language and teaching skills; planning and scheduling the foreign language program in isolation from the general curriculum; and planning schedules and workloads that lead to teacher burnout. (VWL)

The current school reform effort emphasizes the need to improve the education of all students. Assessing the academic achievement of every student is an essential part of this reform, but one that presents a challenge for most schools, school districts, and states. Traditional assessment practices in many states and school districts have tended to exclude students who are learning English as a Second Language. As a consequence, many English language learners (ELLs) are denied access to important educational opportunities that are based on assessment results. This digest focuses on one type of assessment system, assessment portfolios, and discusses the advantages and challenges of using an assessment portfolio system that includes ELLs as a district-wide assessment tool. Developing and implementing a large-scale assessment portfolio program that includes English language learners requires extensive planning and discussion and considerable resources. It also offers considerable advantages. Stakeholders within the system have a common vision about what students should learn and be able to do, how goals will be assessed, and what criteria will be used. Improved teaching and learning are natural outcomes of a well-designed, well-implemented assessment portfolio system. (VWL)

The promise of education reform is that all children will receive a quality education. However, there are enormous challenges to reform, including resource inequities, an aging teaching force, and public doubts about school effectiveness. Moreover, school reform policies place enormous strain on teachers and students. Teachers need to implement new curricula and ensure that they are providing appropriate instruction. Students--including English language learners--must learn challenging content and pass statewide assessments in order to graduate in many states. These new demands coincide with the well-documented changing face of the U.S. student population. More teachers are responsible for the education of children from diverse backgrounds--children who speak little or no English upon arrival at school, children who may have had interrupted schooling in their home country, and children whose families may have had little exposure to the norms of U.S. schools. In general, the U.S. teaching force is not well prepared to help culturally diverse children succeed academically and socially, because preservice teacher preparation programs have not offered sufficient opportunities for learning how to teach culturally diverse students. As a result, many teachers have been learning on the job. Fillmore and Snow (2000) assert that teachers need an understanding of educational linguistics--how language impacts teaching and learning--to do their work well. They argue that knowledge about language will enhance teachers' practice in general, and in particular, it will aid them in teaching literacy. This digest focuses on principles and structures for professional development of practicing teachers that can help them gain the knowledge they need about language and on some challenges to overcome for providing good professional development opportunities. (Contains 11 references.) (VWL)

Considerable evidence exists that high-quality early childhood education programs for children from birth to age 5 can have long-lasting, positive consequences for children's success in school and later in life, especially for children from low-income families. However, such programs are not available for all children who need them, nor are all programs of the quality that is necessary to achieve positive outcomes for children. Recently, the U.S. Department of Education released a study of the skills and knowledge of a nationally representative cohort of children at entrance to kindergarten, showing that social class and other group differences are already evident this early. This finding suggests that kindergarten is too late to intervene in order to narrow the achievement gap. High-quality early childhood education programs have great potential for preventing later school failure, particularly if they place a strong emphasis on language development. For this reason, early childhood teachers need thorough knowledge about language and how to help children develop language and literacy skills. Often teachers have not had opportunities to build the knowledge they need. This digest discusses early childhood education in context, why early childhood teachers need to know more about language, and what early childhood teachers need to know. (Contains 10 references.) (VWL)(Author/VWL)

Over the past decade, education reforms have raised the educational bar for all children in the United States--including newcomers. These reforms place tremendous pressures on children and teachers. In addition to mastering the content-area curriculum, children must become skilled users of language. They must be highly competent in reading and writing to pass the various assessments that constitute gateways for completing school, getting into college, and finding jobs. Teachers need a wealth of content and pedagogical knowledge to ensure that they are providing appropriate instruction to all students. Teachers also need a thorough understanding of educational linguistics--how language figures in education. This foundation would support teachers' practice overall, and in particular, it would help them teach literacy skills, especially to English language learners. If approached coherently, preparation in educational linguistics would cover many items on lists of teacher competencies, such as skills in assessing children, individualizing instruction, and respecting diversity. This digest summarizes some basic aspects of oral and written language about which elementary teachers need expertise in order to promote literacy. (VWL)

This digest discusses the contextual factors that affect students' learning of a second language. These individual, social, and societal factors can be considered from the perspective of the language, the learner, and the learning process. These perspectives are discussed as they relate to learning any second language, with a particular focus on how they affect adolescent learners of English as a second language. Issues related to language include language distance, native language proficiency, knowledge of the second language, dialect and register, language status, and language attitudes. Contextual factors related to the learner include the diverse needs of the learners, peer pressure, the absence of role models, and the level of home support. Factors related to the learning process include the following: learning styles, motivation, and classroom interaction. (VWL)

This digest describes the use of thematic, communicative language teaching in the K-8 foreign language classroom. Such theme-based curricula can reinforce or extend the content of the regular classroom curriculum and give coherence to language lessons. Themes for curriculum units can be derived from many sources. Teachers should choose themes that lend themselves to teaching language that will be useful to their students. A focus on communication, including the interactions present in all uses of the language, is essential. Three thematic units are provided in the digest for illustration: a second-grade French class "visiting the farm"; a German fairy tale for third-grade students; and the South American Rain Forest for a fifth-grade Spanish class. (VWL)

High dropout rates among language-minority secondary school students are one indication that many schools are failing to adequately support the needs of these students. The belief that the student dropout rate is due to a lack of proficiency in English often leads educators to overlook the economic, cultural, academic, and personal issues that immigrant adolescents must confront on a daily basis. To be effective, programs must begin with a compassionate understanding of these students and recognize and build on the identity, language, and knowledge they already possess. Instruction developed for native-English-speaking students may not be appropriate for students who are still learning English. To engage immigrant adolescents in school, educators must provide them with avenues to explore and strengthen their ethnic identities and languages while developing their ability to study and work in this country. This digest discusses 10 principles for developing effective teaching and learning contexts for immigrant adolescents and profiles one program that has been successful in promoting the academic success of its students by implementing these principles. (Author/VWL)

Foreign language teachers are continually searching for better ways of accessing authentic materials and providing experiences that will improve their students' knowledge and skills. The Internet has transformed communication around the world and can play a major role in the foreign language classroom. This digest illustrates how Internet software can enhance the classroom experience. In addition to the original Internet applications, like FTP (file transfer protocol) for moving files between machines and Telnet for logging into distant computers, the wide range of features and media (text, image, sound, video, multimedia) supported by the current crop of Internet programs makes them powerful additions to the foreign language teacher's repertoire. A number of Internet applications are highlighted that can be used to enrich the foreign language classroom. (VWL)

Interest in and support for language study has been strengthened in the United States in recent years by the growing recognition that proficiency in more than one language benefits both individual learners and society. For the individual language learner, research has found a positive link between second language proficiency and cognitive and academic ability. Several studies indicate that individuals who learn a second language are more creative and better at solving complex problems than those who do not. Other studies correlate bilingual proficiency with higher scores on standardized tests and tests of both verbal and nonverbal intelligence. A multilingual workforce enhances America's economic competitiveness abroad, helps maintain our political and security interests, and promotes tolerance and intercultural awareness. Although the opportunities that are available for learning languages may vary depending on location, there are many ways to encourage the study of languages in the home, the classroom, and the community. This digest suggests specific ways that parents, teachers, school administrators, policymakers, and members of the business community can foster the learning of languages among children and adults. (VWL)

This digest discusses a project conducted in the Ysleta Independent School District in El Paso, Texas, that sought to integrate effective practices in literacy education, an empirically based cooperative learning model, and a classroom management model to help teachers develop the English and Spanish language proficiency of their students. The cooperative learning model selected was Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC). It consists of instructional practices that develop social, academic, and communication skills. It was selected for the following reasons: (1) It integrates oral language development, reading, and writing through all phases of instruction; (2) it enables bilingual teachers to manage their English, primary language, and transitional literacy activities effectively; (3) it develops critical thinking and social skills; (4) it develops self-esteem and self-confidence; (5) it uses children's literature in two languages and a variety of text genres, including student publications and reading texts; (6) it helps students appreciate and become proficient in their primary language while developing proficiency in English; and (7) it provides an English teaching and learning environment in which the subject matter is not watered down, and higher order discourse and thinking are the norm. The digest describes the features of the bilingual version of the CIRC model, now called BCIRC, and highlights initial findings from the Ysleta Independent School District. (VWL)

Since the 1996 Oakland School Board decision regarding the use of Ebonics as a tool of instruction, opinions have clashed over whether Ebonics is a separate language or merely a dialect of English. Called Black Vernacular English (BVE) in the 1960s and 70s, African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in the 1980s and 90s, (called "Ebonic", without the "s" by this author, in keeping with other language names that end in "-ic", such as Arabic and Amharic) Ebonics has traditionally been considered a dialect of English by educators and linguists. To understand why Ebonics might be considered a language other than English requires a closer look at what it takes to make a language, as well as what the differences are between a language and a dialect. The author discusses the following questions: What does it take to make a language? Is Ebonic bad English? Is Ebonic a language or a dialect? and Why consider Ebonic a separate language? (Contains a "Resources on Ebonics" Section, with 23 Web and print sources.) (VWL)

This digest draws on a set of linguistic autobiographies written by Asian-American college students in classes at the University of California at Berkeley over the last several years, and examines the pattern of language shift that takes place in the young first- and second-generation student and why this shift takes place. It also looks at the efforts families make to keep their heritage language strong (and why those efforts often do not work) and at those rare people who have succeeded in becoming bilingual, and what happened to make it possible. Specific sections discuss the following: learning English; first language attrition; factors relating to first language retention and attrition; efforts at language maintenance; the University of California, Berkeley environment; and thoughts for future generations. (VWL)

The project described in this digest was designed with the belief that teacher professional growth can best be fostered through sustained collaborative inquiry between teachers and researchers. It set out to incorporate what is known about quality professional development with the special features necessary for meeting the needs of English language learners. The project defined a model of sheltered instruction based on the research of best practices, as well as on the experiences of the participating teachers and researchers. They collaborated in developing the observation tool being utilized in the study, the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP), which identifies the features of sheltered instruction that can enhance and expand teachers' instructional practice. The SIOP was originally designed as an observation and rating tool for the researchers to use while viewing the participating teachers in the classroom. During the course of the project, however, the participating teachers discovered its potential as a tool for lesson planning and reflection. The model has been used to train middle school teachers to implement effective sheltered strategies in their classes in four large urban school districts (two on the East Coast and two on the West Coast). (VWL)

Second language (L2) computer-adaptive testing (CAT) is a technologically advanced method of assessment in which the computer selects and presents test items to examinees according to the estimated level of the examinee's language ability. The basic notion of an adaptive test is to mimic automatically what a wise examiner would normally do. Specifically, if an examiner asked a question that turned out to be too difficult for the examinee, the next question asked would be considerably easier. This approach stems from the realization that little is learned about an individual's ability if the questions posed are far too difficult or far too easy for that person. This digest discusses the following issues related to computer adaptive testing: (1) advantages of using computer-adaptive testing in second language assessment; (2) roots and challenges of computer-adaptive testing; (3) issues involving the basic principles of assessment in computer-adaptive testing; (4) CAT and the basic principles of test reliability; (5) CAT and the basic principles of test validity; and (6) CAT item pools for measuring the identified ability of the examinee population. (Contains 9 references.) (VWL)