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The decision of the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne to replace horse riding with Obstacle after the 2024 Olympic Games challenges training, testing, and recovery management in Modern Pentathlon. This commentary discusses physiological, technical, and tactical effects of rule changes in the 5 disciplines with a specific focus on the new discipline Obstacle. Modern Pentathlon requires athletes to develop specific endurance capacities relying on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems while simultaneously increasing lower- and upper-body strength capabilities. In addition, movements must be repeatedly executed in an explosive and precise manner. Running and swimming must be fast but economical. Swapping from horse riding to Obstacle will prioritize the explosive strength of the upper extremities and core while keeping high levels of endurance and precision in swimming, fencing, and shooting. Moreover, condensing the Modern Pentathlon competition to a 90-minute television-friendly format enables more competitions in the future. Athletes and coaches will thus also need to develop and maintain effective individual peri-exercise routines (before, during, and after the competition) to successfully meet the resulting tactical and physical challenges of the new format. This commentary aims to stimulate the discussion on the effect of the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne's decisions to replace riding with the new Obstacle discipline and implement a more television-friendly format with a focus on physiological, technical, and tactical aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature describing the effects of mental fatigue (MF) has grown tremendously. This is accompanied by identification of a host of performance-determining parameters affected by MF. MF results from prolonged cognitive effort and predominantly affects physical, technical, tactical, and perceptual–cognitive dimensions of sport, while physiological parameters (eg, heart rate, lactate) and physical aspects of maximal and supramaximal efforts are predominantly unaffected. The aim of this paper was to provide an overview of the parameters described in the literature as influenced by MF. By identifying the different parameters, we not only see how they affect the performance of athletes but also raise concerns about the potentially increased injury risk due to MF. Preliminary evidence suggests that subsequent disturbances in balance, motor skills, and decision-making processes could potentially increase the vulnerability to injury. An abundance of lab-based studies looked into the effects of MF on performance; however, many questions remain about the mechanisms of origin and neurophysiological causes of MF, and only small steps have been taken to translate this knowledge into practice. Thus, there is a need for more research into the underlying mechanisms of MF and the role of the brain, as well as more applied research with a high ecological validity that also takes into account the potential increased risk of injury due to MF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare designs of training sessions applied by world-class cross-country skiers during their most successful junior and senior season. Methods: Retrospective analysis of self-reported training characteristics (ie, training form, intensity, and exercise mode) among 8 male and 7 female world-class cross-country skiers was conducted. Results: Total number of sessions (441 [71] vs 519 [34], P <.001, large effect) and mean duration (1.5 [0.1] h vs 1.7 [0.1] h, P <.001, moderate effect) increased from junior to senior age. More double-session days were performed at senior age (124 [50] vs 197 [29] d, P <.001, large). The number (310 [64] vs 393 [64], P <.001, large effect) and duration (1.3 [0.1] h vs 1.5 [0.1] h, P <.001, moderate effect) of low-intensity training sessions increased from junior to senior age. Regarding intensive training, most emphasis was put on high-intensity training sessions lasting 20 to 39 minutes with <5-minute intervals at junior age, while 40 to 59 minutes of moderate-intensity training with 5- to 9-minute intervals was predominant at senior age. More MIXED (combined moderate- and high-intensity) sessions (9 [7] vs 14 [7], P =.023, moderate effect) and longer races (0.5 [0.1] h vs 0.6 [0.1] h, P = 0.29, moderate effect) compensated for fewer high-intensity training sessions at senior age (36 [17] vs 25 [10], P =.027, moderate effect). Duration of strength-training sessions increased significantly (0.6 [0.1] vs 0.8 [0.2] h, P = 0.30, moderate effect), while other training forms remained unchanged. Conclusions: World-class cross-country skiers increased their training volume from junior to senior age primarily by more and longer low-intensity training sessions and more often training twice per day. Concurrently, the most frequent intensive sessions were modified from high- to moderate-intensity training, lasted longer, and contained longer intervals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dyslipidemia is a major contributor to the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Despite high level of physical activity, athletes are not immune from dyslipidemia, but longitudinal data on the variation of lipids are currently lacking. We sought to assess lipid profile changes over time in Olympic athletes practicing different sports disciplines (power, skills, endurance, and mixed). We enrolled 957 consecutive athletes evaluated from London 2012 to Beijing 2022 Olympic Games. Dyslipidemia was defined as low-density lipoprotein (LDL) ≥115 mg/dl, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) <40 mg/dl for males, or HDL <50 mg/dl for females. Hypertriglyceridemia was defined as triglycerides >150 mg/dl. At the follow-up, a variation of ±40 mg/dl for LDL, ±6 mg/dl for HDL, and ±50 mg/dl for triglycerides was considered relevant. Athletes with follow-up <10 months or taking lower lipid agents were excluded. Follow-up was completed in 717 athletes (74.9%), with a mean duration of 55.6 months. Mean age was 27.2 ± 4.8 years old, 54.6% were male (n = 392). Overall, 19.8% (n = 142) athletes were dyslipidemic at both blood tests, being older, practicing nonendurance sports, and predominantly male. In 69.3% (n = 129) of those with elevated LDL at t0, altered values were confirmed at follow-up, while the same occurred in 36.5% (n = 15) with hypo-HDL and 5.3% (n = 1) in those with elevated triglycerides. Weight and fat mass percentage modifications did not affect lipid profile variation. LDL hypercholesterolemia tends to persist over time especially among male, older, and nonendurance athletes. LDL hypercholesterolemia detection in athletes should prompt early preventive intervention to reduce the risk of future development of atherosclerotic disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study investigated sex differences in self-reported causes, symptoms, and recovery strategies associated with underperformance in endurance athletes. Methods: A total of 82 athletes (40 women) meeting the inclusion criteria (performance level ≥tier 3, used training diaries, and experienced 1 or more periods of underperformance during their career) completed an online questionnaire. The questionnaire encompassed inquiries regarding load monitoring and experiences with underperformance, focusing on causes, symptoms, and recovery strategies. Results: The most frequently reported symptoms associated with underperformance included psychological (31%), physiological (23%), and health-related (12%) symptoms. Notably, female athletes were more likely to report psychological symptoms associated with underperformance (38% vs 25%, P =.01) compared with male athletes. The leading causes of underperformance comprised illness (21%), mental/emotional challenges (20%), training errors (12%), lack of recovery (10%), and nutritional challenges (5%). Female athletes reported nutritional challenges more frequently as the cause of underperformance compared with males (9% vs 1%, P =.01), whereas male athletes more often attributed underperformance to training errors (15% vs 9%, P =.03). Overall, 67% of athletes reported recovering from underperformance, with a tendency for more male than female athletes to recover (76% vs 58%, P =.07). Furthermore, a higher proportion of male than female athletes reported implementing changes in the training process as a recovery strategy (62% vs 35%, P =.02). Conclusions: This study offers valuable insights into sex differences in experiences with underperformance in endurance athletes. The findings could inform coaches and athletes in both the prevention and treatment of such incidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article suggests to investigate the utility of a global multicomponent metric, and to establish conversion relationships to address critical gap in sport-science methodology. It proposes potential solutions to develop more accurate conversion methods and standardized reporting practices such as the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) method, using an analogy approach with three primary determinants, and quantifying energy expenditure across training modalities.

Purpose: Precooling (PreC) may only benefit performance when thermal strain experienced by an individual is sufficiently high. We explored the effect of mixed-method PreC on 20-km cycling time-trial (CTT) performance under 3 different apparent temperatures (AT). Methods: On separate days, 12 trained or highly trained male cyclists/triathletes completed six 20-km CTTs in 3 different ATs: hot-dry (35 °C AT), moderately hot-humid (40 °C AT), and hot-humid (46 °C AT). All trials were preceded by 30 minutes of mixed-method PreC or no PreC (control [CON]). Results: Faster 2.5-km-split completion times occurred in PreC compared with CON in 46 °C AT (P =.02), but not in 40 °C AT (P =.62) or 35 °C AT (P =.57). PreC did not affect rectal and body temperature during the 20-km CTT. Skin temperature was lower throughout the CTT in PreC compared with CON in 46 °C AT (P =.01), but not in 40 °C AT (P = 1.00) and 35 °C AT (P = 1.00). Heart rate had a greater rate of increase during the CTT for PreC compared with CON in 46 °C AT (P =.01), but not in 40 °C AT (P =.57) and 35 °C AT (P = 1.00). Ratings of perceived exertion (P <.001) and thermal comfort (P =.04) were lower for PreC compared with CON in 46 °C AT only, while thermal sensation was not different between PreC and CON. Conclusion: Mixed-method PreC should be applied prior to 20-km CTTs conducted in hot-humid conditions (≥46 °C AT). Alternatively, mixed-method PreC may be a priority in moderately hot-humid (∼40 °C AT) conditions but should not be in hot-dry (∼35 °C AT) conditions for 20-km CTT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the effect of personalized sweat sodium replacement on drinking behavior, sodium and water balance, and thermophysiological responses during and after ultraendurance running in hot conditions. Methods: Nine participants (7 male, 2 female) completed two 5-hour treadmill runs (60% maximum oxygen uptake, 30°C ambient temperature), in a double-blind randomized crossover design, consuming sodium chloride (SODIUM) capsules to replace 100% of previously assessed losses or placebo (PLACEBO). Fluid was consumed ad libitum. Results: No effect of SODIUM was observed for ad libitum fluid intake or net fluid balance (P >.05). Plasma sodium concentration increased in both trials, but to a greater extent in SODIUM at 2.5 hours (mean [SD]: 4 [4] mmol·L−1 vs 1 [5] mmol·L−1; P <.05) and postexercise (4 [3] mmol·L−1 vs 1 [5] mmol·L−1; P <.05). Plasma volume change was not different between trials (P >.05) but was strongly correlated with sodium balance in SODIUM (r =.880, P <.01). No effect of sodium replacement was observed for heart rate, rectal temperature, thermal comfort, perceived exertion, or physiological strain index. During the 24 hours postexercise, ad libitum fluid intake was greater following SODIUM (2541 [711] mL vs 1998 [727] mL; P =.04), as was urinary sodium excretion (NaCl: 66 [35] mmol, Pl: 21 [12] mmol; P <.01). Conclusions: Personalized sweat sodium replacement during ultraendurance running in hot conditions, with ad libitum fluid intake, exacerbated the rise in plasma sodium concentration compared to no sodium replacement but did not substantially influence overall body-water balance or thermophysiological strain. A large sodium deficit incurred during exercise leads to substantial renal sodium conservation postexercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Monitoring is a fundamental part of the training process to guarantee that the programmed training loads are executed by athletes and result in the intended adaptations and enhanced performance. A number of monitoring tools have emerged during the last century in sport. These tools capture different facets (eg, psychophysiological, physical, biomechanical) of acute training bouts and chronic adaptations while presenting specific advantages and limitations. Therefore, there is a need to identify what tools are more efficient in each sport context for better monitoring of training process. Methods and Results: We present and discuss the fine-tuning approach for training monitoring, which consists of identifying and combining the best monitoring tools with experts' knowledge in different sport settings, designed to improve (1) the control of actual training loads and (2) understanding of athletes' training adaptations. Instead of using single-tool approaches or merely subjective decision making, the identification of the best combination of monitoring tools to assist experts' decisions in each specific context (ie, triangulation) is necessary to better understand the link between acute and chronic adaptations and their impact on health and performance. Future studies should elaborate on the identification of the best combination of monitoring tools for each specific sport setting. Conclusion: The fine-tuning monitoring approach requires the simultaneous use of several valid and practical tools, instead of a single tool, to improve the effectiveness of monitoring practices when added to experts' knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: One hundred years ago, Hill and Lupton introduced the concept of maximal oxygen uptake ( V ˙ O 2 max), which is regarded as "the principal progenitor of sports physiology." We provide a succinct overview of the evolvement of research on V ˙ O 2 max , from Hill and Lupton's initial findings to current debates on limiting factors for V ˙ O 2 max and the associated role of convective and diffusive components. Furthermore, we update the current use of V ˙ O 2 max in elite endurance sport and clinical settings. Practical Applications and Conclusions: V ˙ O 2 max is a healthy and active centenarian that remains a very important measure in elite endurance sports and additionally contributes as an important vital sign of cardiovascular function and fitness in clinical settings. Over the past 100 years, guidelines for the test protocols and exhaustion criteria, as well as the understanding of limiting factors for V ˙ O 2 max , have improved dramatically. Presently, possibilities of accurate and noninvasive determination of the convective versus diffusive components of V ˙ O 2 max by wearable sensors represent an important future application. V ˙ O 2 max is not only an indicator of cardiorespiratory function, fitness, and endurance performance but also represents an important biomarker of cardiovascular function and health to be included in routine assessment in clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the influence of menstrual-cycle (MC) phase on measures of recovery status, that is, resting heart rate, perceived sleep quality, and physical and mental readiness to train, among female endurance athletes. Methods: Daily data were recorded during 1 to 4 MCs (ie, duration ≥21 and ≤35 d, ovulatory, luteal phase ≥10 d) of 41 trained-to-elite-level female endurance athletes (mean [SD]: age 27 [8] y, weekly training: 9 [3] h). Resting heart rate was assessed daily using a standardized protocol, while perceived sleep quality and physical and mental readiness to train were assessed using a visual analog scale (1–10). Four MC phases (early follicular phase [EFP], late follicular phase, ovulatory phase, and midluteal phase [MLP]) were determined using the calendar-based counting method and urinary ovulation-prediction test. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Results: Resting heart rate was significantly higher in MLP (1.7 beats·min−1, P =.006) compared with EFP without significant differences between the other MC phases. Perceived sleep quality was impaired in MLP compared with late follicular phase (−0.3, P =.035). Physical readiness to train was lower both in ovulatory phase (−0.6, P =.015) and MLP (−0.5, P =.026) compared with EFP. Mental readiness to train did not show any significant differences between MC phases (P >.05). Conclusions: Although significant, the findings had negligible to small effect sizes, indicating that MC phase is likely not the main determinant of changes in measures of recovery status but, rather, one of the many possible stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Laboratory-based indicators are commonly used for performance assessment in young cyclists. However, evidence supporting the use of these indicators mostly comes from cross-sectional research, and their validity as predictors of potential future performance remains unclear. We aimed to assess the role of laboratory variables for predicting transition from U23 (under 23 y) to professional category in young cyclists. Methods: Sixty-five U23 male road cyclists (19.6 [1.5] y) were studied. Endurance (maximal graded test and simulated 8-min time trial [TT]), muscle strength/power (squat, lunge, and hip thrust), and body composition (assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) indicators were determined. Participants were subsequently followed and categorized attending to whether they had transitioned ("Pro") or not ("Non-Pro") to the professional category during the study period. Results: The median follow-up period was 3 years. Pro cyclists (n = 16) showed significantly higher values than Non-Pro riders (n = 49) for ventilatory thresholds, peak power output, peak oxygen uptake, and TT performance (all P <.05, effect size > 0.69) and lower levels of fat mass and bone mineral content/density (P <.05, effect size > 0.63). However, no significant differences were found for muscle strength/power indicators (P >.05, effect size < 49). The most accurate individual predictor was TT performance (overall predictive value = 76% for a cutoff value of 5.6 W·kg−1). However, some variables that did not reach statistical significance in univariate analyses contributed significantly to a multivariate model (R2 =.79, overall predictive value = 94%). Conclusions: Although different "classic" laboratory-based endurance indicators can predict the potential of reaching the professional category in U23 cyclists, a practical indicator such as 8-minute TT performance showed the highest prediction accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The record power profile (RPP) has gained popularity as a method of monitoring endurance cycling performance. However, the expected variation of cyclists' performance between seasons remains unknown. We aimed to assess the between-seasons variability of peak performance (assessed through the RPP) in male professional cyclists. Methods: The study followed a longitudinal observational design. Sixty-one male professional cyclists (age 26 [5] y) with power output data from both training sessions and competitions were analyzed for a median of 4 consecutive seasons (range 2–12). The highest mean maximum power values attained for different durations (from 10 s to 30 min), as well as the resulting critical power, were determined for each season. Within-cyclist variability between seasons was assessed, and the upper threshold of expected changes (ie, twice the normal coefficient of variation) was determined. Results: All mean maximum power values showed an overall high agreement and low variability between seasons (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] =.76–.88 and coefficient of variation [CV] = 3.2%–5.9%), with the lowest variability observed for long efforts (>1 min). Critical power showed an ICC and CV of.79 (95% CI,.70–.85) and 3.3% (95% CI, 3.0%–3.7%), respectively. Upper thresholds of expected variation were <12% for short efforts (≤1 min) and <8% for long efforts. Conclusions: "Real-world" peak performance assessed through the RPP shows a low variability between seasons in male professional cyclists—especially for long efforts—with expected variation being around 6% and 3% for short (≤1 min) and long efforts, respectively, and with changes >12% and >8%, respectively, being infrequent for these effort durations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In women's rugby, players regularly interchange between the rugby sevens (R7) and rugby union (RU) formats. Yet, the game demands and particularly the physical aspects respective to both formats vary and players must be able to respond accordingly. The aim of this study was to compare peak running demands in R7 and RU players. Methods: A total of 51 international women players participated. HSBC World Sevens Series (n = 19) and Six Nations Rugby Union tournament matches (n = 10) were analyzed for a total of 437 individual match observations. Global positioning systems were utilized to measure total (in meters) and high-speed (above 16 km·h−1, in meters) distance and frequency of accelerations (above 2.5 m·s−2, n) during different rolling-average periods (1–7 min) to obtain peak running activity values. Power law modeling was used to obtain slope and intercept. For all variables, peak values and the value at the 90th percentile (P90) were analyzed. Results: No intercept difference (P =.25; −0.12 ± 0.17) was observed between formats for total distance (161 vs 155 m·min−1). In contrast, R7 players reported a higher intercept (P =.01; −0.29 ± 0.17) for high-speed distance (66 vs 51 m·min−1), while the intercept was higher (P =.01; 0.31 ± 0.20) in RU for accelerations performed (6.1 vs 5.4 n·min−1). Regarding P90, higher values (P <.001) were observed in R7 for total and high-speed distance and accelerations. Conclusions: While peak overall intensity was similar, P90 on the high-speed spectrum was higher in R7. Information on the most demanding match-play periods specific to both women's rugby formats can inform training specificity by tailoring sessions to ensure sufficient exposure to these peak demands and, consequently, aid transitioning between formats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Our scientific understanding of the mechanistic and practical connections between training session prescriptions, their execution by athletes, and adaptations over time in elite endurance sports remains limited. These connections are fundamental to the art and science of coaching. Objective: By using successful Norwegian endurance coaches as key informants, the aim of this study is to describe and compare best practice session models across different exercise intensities in Olympic endurance sports. Methods: Data collection was based on a four-step pragmatic qualitative study design, involving questionnaires, training logs from successful athletes, and in-depth and semi-structured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. Twelve successful and experienced male Norwegian coaches from biathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance running, road cycling, rowing, speed skating, swimming, and triathlon were chosen as key informants. They had been responsible for the training of world-class endurance athletes who altogether have won > 370 medals in international championships. Results: The duration of low-intensity training (LIT) sessions ranges from 30 min to 7 h across sports, mainly due to modality-specific constraints and load tolerance considerations. Cross-training accounts for a considerable part of LIT sessions in several sports. Moderate (MIT)- and high-intensity training (HIT) sessions are mainly conducted as intervals in specific modalities, but competitions also account for a large proportion of annual HIT in most sports. Interval sessions are characterized by a high accumulated volume, a progressive increase in intensity throughout the session, and a controlled, rather than exhaustive, execution approach. A clear trend towards shorter intervals and lower work: rest ratio with increasing intensity was observed. Overall, the analyzed sports implement considerably more MIT than HIT sessions across the annual cycle. Conclusions: This study provides novel insights on quantitative and qualitative aspects of training session models across intensities employed by successful athletes in Olympic endurance sports. The interval training sessions revealed in this study are generally more voluminous, more controlled, and less exhaustive than most previous recommendations outlined in research literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare the accuracy of the power output, measured by a power meter, with respect to the speed, measured by an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) sport watch to determine the critical power (CP) and speed (CS), work over CP (W') and CS (D'), and long‐duration performance (i.e., 60 min). Fifteen highly trained athletes randomly performed seven time trials on a 400 m track. The CP/CS and W'/D' were defined through the inverse of time model using the 3, 4, 5, 10, and 20 min trials. The 60 min performance was estimated through the power law model using the 1, 3, and 10 min trials and compared with the actual performance. A lower standard error of the estimate was obtained when using the power meter (CP: 2.7 [2.1–3.3] % and W': 13.8 [10.4–17.3] %) compared to the speed reported by the IMU (CS: 3.4 [2.5–4.3] %) and D': 20.7 [16.6–24.7] %) and GNSS sport watch (CS: 3.4 [2.5–4.3] % and D': 20.6 [16.7–24.7] %). A lower coefficient of variation was also observed for the power meter (4.9 [3.7–6.1] %) Regarding the speed reported by the IMU (10.9 [7.1–14.8] %) and GNSS sport watch (10.9 [7.0–14.7] %) in the 60 min performance estimation, the power meter offered lower errors than the IMU and GNSS sport watch for modelling endurance performance on the track. Highlights: Recent advances in wearable technology are creating new opportunities to accurately monitor running intensity in contexts where precision is essential (i.e., track running) for athletes' (e.g., pacing) and coaches' (e.g., performance analysis) tasks.The track mode of recent global navigation satellite system (GNSS) sport watches seems to offer a decent improvement. Alternatively, new inertial measurement units (IMUs) designed specifically for running have emerged offering the capability to monitor distance in specific contexts such as treadmills and indoor tracks. Additionally, these IMUs provide new metrics of the external load.The power meter provided by the Stryd inertial measurement unit (IMU) demonstrated lower estimation errors in modelling endurance running performance on the track compared to speed data reported by the same IMU and a Garmin GNSS sports watch (using the track mode). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nine cyclists (age: 26 ± 5 years, height: 168 ± 5 cm and mass 58.5 ± 4.5 kg) were observed using continuous glucose monitoring devices throughout a training camp. Interstitial glucose [iG] data were captured via the Abbott libre sense biosensor (Abbott Laboratories) and paired with the Supersapiens software (TT1 Products Inc.). [iG] data were split into time ranges, that is, overall (24‐hourly), day‐time (06:00–23:59), night‐time (00:00–05:59) and exercise. [iG] data were stratified into percentage of time, below range ([TBR] < 70 mg/dl), in range ([TIR] 70–140 mg/dl) and above range ([TAR] ≥ 141 mg/dl). Differences in diurnal and nocturnal data were analysed via repeated measures analysis of variance and paired t‐tests where appropriate. p‐value of ≤0.05 was accepted as significant. Riders spent an average of 3 ± 1% TAR, 93 ± 2% TIR and 8 ± 3% TBR. Mean 24 h [iG] was 93 ± 2 mg/dl with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 18 ± 1%. Mean (day: 95 ± 3 vs. night: 86 ± 3 mg/dl and p < 0.001) and CV (day: 18 ± 1 vs. night: 9 ± 1% and p < 0.001) in [iG] were higher during the day‐time hours. TAR was greater during the day (day: 3 ± 1 vs. night: 0 ± 0% and p < 0.001) but TBR and TIR were similar. Glucose levels below the clinical range may have implications for those without diabetes and warrants further investigation. Highlights: The data provided in this study offer novel insight into the daily glycaemic responses of female cyclists engaged in consecutive days' worth of heavy exercise training as part of a performance camp.% Time above range was greatest during exercise whereas, the % time below range was at its lowest. This may offer some insight into the demands of exercise and glucose variability.Riders maintained a high percentage of time spent in range, yet displayed some time <70 mg/dl, that is, hypoglycaemia. A proportionate amount of time was spent with glucose levels below the clinical range, the potential health and/or sports performance implications of this in athletic individuals without diabetes warrants further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study explores the validity of the nonlinear index alpha 1 of detrended fluctuation analysis (DFAa1) of heart rate (HR) variability for exercise prescription in prolonged constant load running bouts of different intensities. 21 trained endurance athletes (9 w and 12 m) performed a ramp test for ventilatory threshold (vVT1 and vVT2) and DFAa1‐based (vDFAa1‐1 at 0.75 and vDFAa1‐2 at 0.5) running speed detection as well as two 20‐min running bouts at vDFAa1‐1 and vDFAa1‐2 (20‐vDFAa1‐1 and 20‐vDFAa1‐2), in which HR, oxygen consumption (VO2), respiratory frequency (RF), DFAa1, and blood lactate concentration [La‐] were assessed. 20‐vDFAa1‐2 could not be finished by all participants (finisher group (FG), n = 15 versus exhaustion group (EG), n = 6). Despite similar mean external loads of vDFAa1‐1 (10.6 ± 1.9 km/h) and vDFAa1‐2 (13.1 ± 2.4 km/h) for all participants compared to vVT1 (10.8 ± 1.7 km/h) and vVT2 (13.2 ± 1.9 km/h), considerable differences were present for 20‐vDFAa1‐2 in EG (15.2 ± 2.4 km/h). 20‐vDFAa1‐1 and 20‐DFAa1‐2 yielded significant differences in FG for HR (76.2 ± 5.7 vs. 86.4 ± 5.9 %HRPEAK), VO2 (62.1 ± 5.0 vs. 77.5 ± 8.6 %VO2PEAK), RF (40.6 ± 11.3 vs. 46.1 ± 9.8 bpm), DFA‐a1 (0.86 ± 0.23 vs. 0.60 ± 0.15), and [La‐] (1.41 ± 0.45 vs. 3.34 ± 2.24 mmol/L). Regarding alterations during 20‐vDFAa1‐1, all parameters showed small changes for all participants, while during 20‐vDFAa1‐2 RF and DFAa1 showed substantial alterations in FG (RF: 15.6% and DFAa1: −12.8%) and more pronounced in EG (RF: 20.1% and DFAa1: −35.9%). DFAa1‐based exercise prescription from incremental testing could be useful for most participants in prolonged running bouts, at least in the moderate to heavy intensity domain. In addition, an individually different increased risk of overloading may occur in the heavy to severe exercise domains and should be further elucidated in the light of durability and decoupling assessment. Highlights: DFAa1‐based exercise prescription from incremental testing shows potential for prolonged constant load exercise, at least in the moderate to heavy intensity domains for most trained runners.Caution is advised for the heavy to severe exercise domains as individual overload may occur.The relationship of DFAa1 and vDFAa1 seems to be highly individual as well as perspectives for the durability and decoupling assessment and should be further elucidated during longer exercise bouts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescriptions manipulate intensity, duration, and recovery variables in multiple combinations. Researchers often compare different HIIT variable combinations and treat HIIT prescription as a "maximization problem", seeking to identify the prescription(s) that induce the largest acute VO2/HR/RPE response. However, studies connecting the magnitude of specific acute HIIT response variables like work time >90% of VO2max and resulting cellular signalling and/or translation to protein upregulation and performance enhancement are lacking. This is also not how successful endurance athletes train. First, HIIT training cannot be seen in isolation. Successful endurance athletes perform most of their training volume below the first lactate turn point (

A competitive sport season represents a multidimensional stressor where physical and psychological stress may render an athlete susceptible to energy deficiency (ED). Downstream effects of ED can include a reduction in measured-to-predicted resting metabolic rate (RMRratio), indicating metabolic compensation. A pathway linking stress, eating attitudes, and metabolic compensation has not been explored. To test if sport-specific stress is associated with eating attitudes and metabolism in endurance athletes (18–22 years) at different phases of a competitive season, we assessed two groups of athletes: 26 swimmers (15 female and 11 male) during peak season (PEAK), and 26 runners (female) across pre- (PRE) and off-season (OFF). Stress (RESTQ-52), eating attitudes (cognitive restraint (CR), drive for muscularity (DM), and body dissatisfaction), and metabolism (RMRratio) were assessed. In PRE, sport-specific stress and CR were negatively correlated with RMRratio (R = −0.58; p < 0.05, and R = −0.57; p < 0.05, respectively). In PEAK, sport-specific stress and DM were negatively correlated with RMRratio (R = −0.64; p < 0.05; R = −0.40; p < 0.05, respectively). DM was positively related to sport-specific stress (R = 0.55; p < 0.05). During OFF, there was no relation between RMRratio and sport-specific stress. In runners, there was a change in stress from PRE-to-OFF with highest reported stress during PRE (p < 0.05) versus OFF. Regression analyses revealed that sport-specific stress and CR were significant predictors of RMRratio during PRE and PEAK (p < 0.05), but not OFF (p > 0.05). Associations between stress, eating attitudes, and metabolic compensation in endurance athletes during PRE and PEAK season suggest that during heavier training, metabolic compensation may be linked to upstream eating attitudes associated with sport-stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To describe and compare the incidence and propensity of head acceleration events (HAEs) using instrumented mouthguards (iMG) by playing position in a season of English elite-level men's and women's rugby union matches. Methods: iMG data were collected for 255 men and 133 women from 1,865 and 807 player-matches, respectively, and synchronised to video-coded match footage. Head peak resultant linear acceleration (PLA) and peak resultant angular acceleration (PAA) were extracted from each HAE. Mean incidence and propensity values were calculated across different recording thresholds for forwards and backs in addition to positional groups (front row, second row, back row, half backs, centres, back three) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) estimated. Significance was determined based on 95% CI not overlapping across recording thresholds. Results: For both men and women, HAE incidence was twice as high for forwards than backs across the majority of recording thresholds. HAE incidence and propensity were significantly lower in the women's game compared to the men's game. Back-row and front-row players had the highest incidence across all HAE thresholds for men's forwards, while women's forward positional groups and men's and women's back positional groups were similar. Tackles and carries exhibited a greater propensity to result in HAE for forward positional groups and the back three in the men's game, and back row in the women's game. Conclusion: These data offer valuable benchmark and comparative data for future research, HAE mitigation strategies, and management of HAE exposure in elite rugby players. Positional-specific differences in HAE incidence and propensity should be considered in future mitigation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endurance athletes fail to meet carbohydrate (CHO) guidelines for competition, which may be due to limited knowledge. However, the relationship between knowledge and practice in this population is unknown. To investigate this, we assessed the dietary intake in 50 athletes (37 females) who completed endurance events ≥2.5 h in duration and compared CHO intake against the carbohydrates for endurance athletes in competition questionnaire validated nutrition knowledge questionnaire, with specific questions related to CHO loading, pre‐competition meal and during‐competition intake. CHO‐loading guidelines (10–12 g · kg−1 · day−1) were met in practice by n = 5 (10%), but there was no relationship between identified requirements (range 0–12 g · kg−1 · day−1) and actual intake (rs = 0.133, p = 0.358), with the n = 18 (36%) who correctly identified requirements, ingesting 6.1 ± 1.9 g · kg−1 · day−1. CHO intake for pre‐competition meal guidelines (1–4 g · kg−1) was met in practice by n = 40 (80%), but there was no relationship between identified requirements (range 0 to >4 g · kg−1) and actual intake (rs = 0.101, p = 0.487), with n = 19 (38%) who correctly identified guidelines requirements, ingesting 1.4 ± 0.6 g · kg−1. CHO intake during‐competition guidelines (60–90 g · h−1) was met in practice by n = 18 (36%), but there was no relationship between the amounts of CHO required (range 30 to >90 g/h) and actual intake (rs = 0.028, p = 0.849), with n = 32 (64%) who correctly identified guidelines requirements, ingesting 56 ± 20 g · h−1. Results show no relationship between the knowledge of CHO recommendations and practice, suggesting that theoretical knowledge does not guarantee the achievement of best practice and other important factors may ultimately determine practice. Highlights: The carbohydrates for endurance athletes in competition questionnaire (CEAC‐Q) score did not show any association between theoretical knowledge and actual intake for carbohydrate (CHO) loading, pre‐competition, or during competition scenarios, indicating that athletes do not necessarily apply what they know.Despite 30% of athletes meeting the guidelines for CHO loading, and CHO intake during competition, there was no clear relationship between practice and their knowledge of these guidelines as measured by the CEAC‐Q.The discrepancy between theoretical knowledge and actual intake within real‐world competition highlights that other factors may be important barriers and facilitators to translate scientific knowledge and bridge the gap into optimal dietary practices of endurance athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the influence of anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE). Twenty-two endurance runners and triathletes were evaluated for maximum sprinting speed (MSS) and countermovement jump (CMJ) before (non-fatigued) and after (fatigued) an incremental running test. They were allocated in LASR (low-ASR) and HASR (high-ASR) groups for comparisons between conditions. HASR showed greater CMJ and MSS (both p ≤ 0.005) performances, with enhanced CMJ in fatigued condition (p ≤ 0.008). Significant correlations were found between ASR, CMJ, and MSS in both conditions (p ≤ 0.01) for the entire sample, and between ∆CMJ and ∆MSS (p ≤ 0.001) in LASR. Our results show that ASR profile influences PAPE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Determining an athlete's maximal peak power (MPP) is crucial in profiling endurance sports participants. While short (3 to 6 seconds) all-out efforts have been validated for MPP assessment, prior studies mainly involved non-endurance trained athletes. This study aimed to assess the intra- and inter-day reliability of a 6-second Wingate test for MPP determination in endurance athletes. Endurance-trained participants (22 males, 5 females) completed nine 6-second Wingate tests over four days (3 trials at baseline, 2 trials on each subsequent day). Analysis revealed no systematic differences in MPP (F(4.09, 106.3) = 1.88, p = 0.117) or time to peak power (χ2 (8) = 5.23, p = 0.732) across the trials. Reliability, assessed through the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and standard error of measurement (SEM), was excellent across all trials (ICC = 0.95, SEM = 40.0W, SEM% = 3.7%). Absolute reliability improved when selecting the average or the best MPP values from each day (SEM% = 2.7% and 2.9%, respectively). Within-day reliability was consistently rated as excellent, with the best values on the 4th day of tests. No significant differences in MPP values occurred between the first and second 6-second Wingate tests on days 1 to 3, with both trials demonstrating similar reliability values (SEM%: 3.2% vs 2.8%, for the first and second trials, respectively). The test also demonstrated a good sensitivity to detect a meaningful change in MPP values. In conclusion, the 6-second Wingate test proves reliable for determining MPP in endurance-trained athletes. Two trials are recommended on the first day of testing, with a single MPP likely sufficient to determine the athlete's MPP on subsequent days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to investigate the differences in body composition between differently trained men and women. This research included 159 participants (84 male and 75 female) divided into 5 groups according to activity level: PI - physically inactive, PA - physically active, SP - strength and power athletes, EA - endurance athletes, TS - team sports athletes. The testing procedure of measuring body composition was carried out by the use of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA, InBody 720). Of the statistical analysis, ANOVA and MANOVA were used. The results showed that there is a significant difference in body composition parameters between differently trained men and women (p = 0.000; F = 2.470; η² = 0.356, on average). Both in groups of men and women the biggest differences were observed between PI, EA and other groups (F = from 9.656 to -1.673, p = from 0.000 to 0.043; F = from 10.966 to 1.073, p = from 0.000 to 0.050, respectively). The results showed that every physical activity is beneficial from the aspect of body composition status and that the most crucial factor in improving body composition status is the regularity of physical activity. It has been shown that regular physical activity leads to a decrease in muscle fat and an increase in muscle mass and protein. Also, it has been shown that practicing a physical activity typical for endurance sports has the most significant positive impact on body composition status and leads to a significant decrease in body fat mass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms are associated with endurance exercise ability. This case–control study explored the association of ACTN3 and ACE gene polymorphisms with elite pure endurance in Korean athletes, hypothesizing that individuals with both ACTN3 XX and ACE II genotypes would exhibit superior endurance. We recruited 934 elite athletes (713 males, 221 females) and selected 45 pure endurance athletes (36 males, 9 females) requiring "≥90% aerobic energy metabolism during sports events", in addition to 679 healthy non-athlete Koreans (361 males, 318 females) as controls. Genomic DNA was extracted and genotyped for ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms. ACE ID (p = 0.090) and ACTN3 RX+XX (p = 0.029) genotype distributions were significantly different between the two groups. Complex ACTN3-ACE genotypes also exhibited significant differences (p = 0.014), with dominant complex genotypes positively affecting endurance (p = 0.039). The presence of RX+II or XX+II was associated with a 1.763-fold higher likelihood of possessing a superior endurance capacity than that seen in healthy controls (90% CI = 1.037–3.089). Our findings propose an association of combined ACTN3 RX+XX and ACE II genotypes with enhanced endurance performance in elite Korean athletes. While causality remains to be confirmed, our study highlights the potential of ACTN3-ACE polymorphisms in predicting elite endurance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical activity is recommended for the prevention of primary and secondary cardiovascular (CV) disease as it is linked to a number of health benefits, especially CV. However, recent research suggests that high-volume, long-term endurance exercise may hasten rather than slow the coronary atherosclerosis progression. This contentious theory has generated a great discussion and is still a major source of doubt when it comes to the clinical treatment of coronary artery disease (CAD) in athletes. CAD is the primary cause of sudden cardiac death in athletes over 35 years. Thus, recent studies evaluated the prevalence of CAD in athletes and its clinical and prognostic implications. Indeed, many studies have shown a relationship between endurance sports and higher volumes of coronary calcified plaque as determined by computed tomography. However, the precise pathogenetic substrate for the existence of an increased coronary calcification burden among endurance athletes remains unclear. Moreover, the idea that coronary plaques in elite athletes present a benign morphology has been cast into doubt by some recent studies showing potential association with adverse cardiovascular events. This review aims to analyze the association between physical activity and CAD, explaining possible underlying mechanisms of atherosclerotic progression and non-ischemic coronary lesions, focusing primarily on clinical and prognostic implications, multimodal evaluation, and management of CAD in endurance athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Endurance exercise at altitude can increase cardiac output and pulmonary vascular pressure to levels that may exceed the stress tolerability of the alveolar--capillary unit. This study examined the effect of ultramarathon trail racing at different altitudes (ranging from <1000 m to between 1500 and 2700 m) on alveolar--capillary recruitment and lung diffusion. Methods: Cardiac and lung function were examined before and after an ultramarathon in 67 runners (age: 41 ± 9 yr, bodymass index: 23 ± 2 kg⋅m-2, 10 females), and following 12-24 h of recovery in a subset (n = 27). Cardiac biomarkers (cTnI and BNP) were assessed from whole blood, whereas lung fluid accumulation (comet tails), stroke volume (SV), and cardiac output (Q)were quantified via echocardiography. Lung diffusing capacity for carbonmonoxide (DLco) and its components, alveolar membrane conductance (Dm) and capillary blood volume (Vc), were determined via a single-breath method at rest and during three stages of submaximal semirecumbent cycling (20, 30, and 40W). Results:Average race time was 25 ± 12 h. From pre- to post-race, there was an increase in cardiac biomarkers (cTnI: 0.04 ± 0.02 vs 0.13 ± 0.03 ng⋅mL-1,BNP: 20 ± 2 vs 112 ± 21 pg⋅mL-1; P < 0.01) and lung comet tails (2 ± 1 vs 7 ± 6, P < 0.01), a decrease in resting and exercise SV (76 ± 2 vs 69 ± 2 mL, 40 W: 93 ± 2 vs 88 ± 2 mL; P < 0.01), and an elevation in Q at rest (4.1 ± 0.1 vs 4.6 ± 0.2 L⋅min-1, P < 0.01; 40 W: 7.3 ± 0.2 vs 7.4 ± 0.3 L⋅min-1, P = 0.899). Resting DLco and Vc decreased after the race ( P < 0.01), whereas Dm was unchanged ( P = 0.465); however, during the three stages of exercise, DLco, Vc, and Dm were all reduced from pre- to post-race (40 W: 36.3 ± 0.9 vs 33.0 ± 0.8 mL⋅min-1⋅mm Hg-1, 83 ± 3 vs 73 ± 2 mL, 186 ± 6 vs 170 ± 7 mL⋅min-1⋅mm Hg-1, respectively; P < 0.01). When corrected for alveolar volume and Q, DLco decreased from pre- to post-race ( P < 0.01), and changes in DLco were similar for all ultramarathon events ( P > 0.05). Conclusions: Competing in an ultramarathon leads to a transient increase in cardiac injury biomarkers, mild lung-fluid accumulation, and impairments in lung diffusion. Reductions in DLco are predominantly caused by a reduced Vc and possible pulmonary capillary de-recruitment at rest. However, impairments in alveolar--capillary recruitment and Dm both contribute to a fall in exertional DLco following an ultramarathon. Perturbations in lung diffusion were evident across a range of event distances and varying environmental exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Although neuromuscular function varies significantly between strength and endurance-trained adult athletes, it has yet to be ascertained whether such differences manifest by early adolescence. The aim of the present study was to compare knee extensor neuromuscular characteristics between adolescent athletes who are representative of strength (wrestling) or endurance (triathlon) sports. Methods: Twenty-three triathletes (TRI), 12 wrestlers (WRE) and 12 untrained (CON) male adolescents aged 13 to 15 years participated in the present study. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) knee extensor (KE) torque was measured, and 100-Hz magnetic doublets were delivered to the femoral nerve during and after KE MVIC to quantify the voluntary activation level (%VA). The doublet peak torque (T100Hz) and normalized vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF) EMG (EMG/M-wave) activities were quantified. VL and RF muscle architecture was also assessed at rest using ultrasound. Results: Absolute and relative (to body mass) KE MVIC torques were significantly higher in WRE than TRI and CON (p < 0.05), but comparable between TRI and CON. No significant differences were observed between groups for %VA, T100Hz or either VL or RF muscle thickness. However, VL EMG/M-wave was higher, RF fascicle length longer, and pennation angle smaller in WRE than TRI and CON (all p < 0.05). Conclusion: The wrestlers were stronger than triathletes and controls, potentially as a result of muscle architectural differences and a greater neural activation. Neuromuscular differences can already be detected by early adolescence in males between predominantly endurance and strength sports, which may result from selection bias and/or physical training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endurance exercise performance is known to be closely associated with the three physiological pillars of maximal O2 uptake (V̇O2max$\dot{V}_{{\rm O}_{2}{\rm max}}$), economy or efficiency during submaximal exercise, and the fractional utilisation of V̇O2max$\dot{V}_{{\rm O}_{2}{\rm max}}$ (linked to metabolic/lactate threshold phenomena). However, while 'start line' values of these variables are collectively useful in predicting performance in endurance events such as the marathon, it is not widely appreciated that these variables are not static but are prone to significant deterioration as fatiguing endurance exercise proceeds. For example, the 'critical power' (CP), which is a composite of the highest achievable steady‐state oxidative metabolic rate and efficiency (O2 cost per watt), may fall by an average of 10% following 2 h of heavy intensity cycle exercise. Even more striking is that the extent of this deterioration displays appreciable inter‐individual variability, with changes in CP ranging from <1% to ∼32%. The mechanistic basis for such differences in fatigue resistance or 'physiological resilience' are not resolved. However, resilience may be important in explaining superlative endurance performance and it has implications for the physiological evaluation of athletes and the design of interventions to enhance performance. This article presents new information concerning the dynamic plasticity of the three 'traditional' physiological variables and argues that physiological resilience should be considered as an additional component, or fourth dimension, in models of endurance exercise performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ski-orienteering, which combines cross-country skiing with orienteering, dates back to the late 1800s, with the first World Championships in 1975. While researchers have explored the physiological and biomechanical determinants of success in cross-country skiing and orienteering separately in detail, scientific knowledge concerning ski-orienteering remains limited. Based on the information that is presently available together with interviews with elite ski-orienteers, we explore here for the first time the historical development, physiological, biomechanical, and psychological demands, certain training strategies, and future prospects and challenges associated with this sport, including its potential to become an Olympic event. A demanding endurance sport (with racing times of 12–120 min), ski-orienteering requires both considerable aerobic and anaerobic capacity, as well as well-trained upper and lower body muscles. In addition, ski-orienteering demands advanced skiing technique on various types of terrain, with frequent changes between sub-techniques, on both wide and narrow tracks and with numerous turns on downhill terrain. Moreover, success in this sport requires accurate and rapid orienteering—the ability to navigate a complex network of ski tracks with numerous intersections/crossings in a manner designed to pass the multiple control points in the order indicated on the map as rapidly as possible, i.e., advanced spatial cognition and highly developed navigational skills. Thus, ski-orienteering requires training designed to improve both relevant physiological characteristics and orienteering skills, which should become the focus of future interdisciplinary research on this complex sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It is widely accepted that countries' characteristics influence sports performance. However, there is a missing link regarding the association between cultural dimensions and runners' performance. Our purpose was to verify if the six cultural dimensions of Hofstede are related to performance in non-elite runners and to investigate whether cultural factors remain as predictors when individual factors are considered. Methods: We used a cross-sectional design, sampling 279 runners from Brazil, Spain, Kenya, Portugal, and Poland. We used a web survey to collect data from runners, while countries' cultural dimensions were obtained through the six dimensions of Hofstede's theory (power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence). A robust regression analysis was performed considering three different models (crude, adjusted by cultural dimensions, adjusted by runners' characteristics). For all analyses, running pace was considered as performance indicator. Analysis was performed in STATA (version 14), adopting a 95% confidence interval. Results: The crude model showed that power distance and indulgence were associated with running pace. The culture-adjusted model showed that higher scores of masculinity in a country leads to lower performance (β = 3.9; p < 0.001), while higher scores of individualism is associated with to higher performance (β = −3.3; p < 0.001). When the model was adjusted for runners' variables, individualism remained as a significant predictor (β = −1.4; p = 0.035). The last model explains 41% of the runner's performance variance. Conclusion: Runners, coaches, and policymakers can better understand the drivers and barriers to performance and running practice across different countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the study was to compare measurements of length, thickness, and cross-section area (CSA) of the patellar tendon (PT) among cyclists, runners, triathletes, and physically active individuals (control group). Forty healthy individuals (10 cyclists, 10 runners, 10 triathletes, and 10 physically active individuals) aged between 18 and 45 years (30.3 ± 8.6 years) participated in the study. PT was measured by a B-mode ultrasound system. To measure the length and thickness (in 5, 10, 15, and 20 mm of the PT length) the probe was positioned parallel to the tendon and to measure the CSA the probe was positioned perpendicularly in 25, 50, and 75% of the PT length. PT length data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA to compare between groups and PT CSA and thickness were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA (group vs. position) to compare the variables among the groups with the post-hoc Tukey test. All statistical analyses were performed considering p < 0.05. We observed a significant difference, where cyclists had smaller PT thickness (regardless of the location measured) compared to the group of triathletes (p = 0.001) and the physically active group (p = 0.043). All other variables (length, thickness, and CSA) and interactions (local and position) were not significant. We concluded that regardless of the position where PT thickness is measured, cyclists have smaller PT thickness compared to triathletes and physically active individuals but similar when compared to runners. And no differences in the length and CSA of the PT between groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental toughness (MT) is an important predictor of athletic performance with a growing number of studies examining the effects of MT on athletic performance. However, there is a lack of clear understanding regarding the exact effects. Therefore, we aimed to synthesise the extant literature regarding the MT-athletic performance effect by systematic review and meta-analysis. Using related keywords of mental toughness, sport, and performance, we searched ten major academic databases from January 2000 to August 2022. Results found that the 16 studies we examined showed moderate to high publication quality, moderate heterogeneity, low sensitivity, and low publication bias. Furthermore, using a random effect estimate-r, we found a moderate to a high correlation between MT and athletic performance, yielding an overall effect size of r = 0.36. Moreover, we found the MT-athletic performance relationship was moderated by age group (r = 0.20 for adolescents and r = 0.41 for adults); sports category (r = 0.73 for combat sports, r = 0.30 for ball sports, and r = 0.32 for endurance sports); sports type (r = 0.73 for individual sports and r = 0.21 for team sports); athletic performance measure (r = 0.33 for objective measure and r = 0.62 for subjective measure); and measure of MT (r = 0.56 for MTQ group, r = 0.32 for PPI-A group, r = 0.33 for MTI group, and r = 0.13 for others). We thus concluded that MT is a broad and multi-factored concept with diverse components in measures. We suggested future studies continuously examining the MT-athletic performance effect with updated measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: This article is the first step of a recent investigation line which gives a new perspective to the physical condition evaluation using the quantification of the thoracic expansion. Knowing how much the thorax is expanded during different exercise intensities could be used to classify different persons for making exercise recommendations of the respiratory muscles, for evaluating the predisposition for endurance sports or as an evaluation for breathing rehabilitation processes. During breathing, the human thorax is expanded or contracted during inspiration and expiration. The morphology of the thorax seems to be determinant for endurance efforts. This study aims to analyse the variation of the thorax cross-sections during running exercises at different intensities and the influence of thorax morphology. Twenty-two athletes were captured using a motion capture system (13 reflective markers) while they performed an incremental running test. Three captures of each subject were performed at different intensities (45%, 70%, and 85% of HRR (heart rate reserve)) and three morphology groups were made by splitting their thoracic index. The results showed a significant increase in the anteroposterior and mediolateral cross-sections when the intensity of the exercise is also increased. No differences were found in the cross-sections due to the morphology of the thorax. However, subjects with a deeper thorax showed a different behaviour as they increased their anteroposterior cross-section during higher intensities, while flatter thorax subjects did not perform in the same way. This could be explained as compensation for the morphological disadvantage that a deeper ribcage shape suffers when developing endurance efforts. More investigations regarding thorax kinematics are needed for a better understanding of breathing disorders and physical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Females who engage in high levels of sports have a high prevalence of menstrual cycle disorders and bone stress injuries (BSI). In this study, we determined the prevalence of menstrual disorders and fractures in female athletes and their association with bone mineral density (BMD) parameters. Cross-Sectional Study. Forty-one female athletes from a public High-Performance Regional Centre; 24 high-endurance athletes (HEA) and 17 other athletes, were included. To form the control group, we invited medical students from a public University. Twenty-nine non-athletes (NA) were included. A health surveys and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) were conducted for all participants. Among the participants (median age, 24 years; body mass index, 21 kg/m2), the percentage of long-term amenorrhoea was 42 % in HEA vs. 0 % in NHEA (OR 25.35; 95 % CI 1.37–470.50, p = 0.008) or 10 % in NA (OR 6.20; 95 % CI 1.46–26.24, p = 0.022), and the percentage of BSI was 29 % in HEA vs. 0 % in NHEA or NA. Both groups of female athletes (HEA and NHEA) showed higher Z-scores than those of NA in the femur; however, only NHEA had a significant increase in the BMD on lumbar spine than that of NA. The prevalence of long-term amenorrhoea and/or BSI was significantly higher in the HEA than in the NHEA or NA females. In contrast, HEA, like NHEA, had higher BMD values in the femur than those of controls. It is unlikely that DXA parameters can be used to estimate cortical BSI risk in this population. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte is the property of Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models. Methods: Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16–36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol. Results: Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 =.80/Q2 =.65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 =.81/Q2 =.74) and sprint (R2 =.81/Q2 =.70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L−1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L−1 and peak aerobic power. Conclusions: This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study examined the influence of blood-flow restriction (BFR) on the distribution of pace, physiological demands, and perceptual responses during self-paced cycling. Methods: On separate days, 12 endurance cyclists/triathletes were instructed to produce the greatest average power output during 8-minute self-paced cycling trials with BFR (60% arterial occlusion pressure) or without restriction (CON). Power output and cardiorespiratory variables were measured continuously. Perceived exertion, muscular discomfort, and cuff pain were recorded every 2 minutes. Results: Linear regression analysis of the power output slope was statistically significant (ie, deviated from the intercept) for CON (2.7 [3.2] W·30 s−1; P =.009) but not for BFR (−0.1 [3.1] W·30 s−1; P =.952). Absolute power output was ∼24% (12%) lower at all time points (P <.001) during BFR compared with CON. Oxygen consumption (18% [12%]; P <.001), heart rate (7% [9%]; P <.001), and perceived exertion (8% [21%]; P =.008) were reduced during BFR compared with CON, whereas muscular discomfort (25% [35%]; P =.003) was greater. Cuff pain was rated as "strong" (5.3 [1.8] au; 0–10 scale) for BFR. Conclusion: Trained cyclists adopted a more even distribution of pace when BFR was applied compared with a negative distribution during CON. By presenting a unique combination of physiological and perceptual responses, BFR is a useful tool to understand how the distribution of pace is self-regulated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Altitude training is often regarded as an indispensable tool for the success of elite endurance athletes. Historically, altitude training emerged as a key strategy to prepare for the 1968 Olympics, held at 2300 m in Mexico City, and was limited to the "Live High-Train High" method for endurance athletes aiming for performance gains through improved oxygen transport. This "classical" intervention was modified in 1997 by the "Live High-Train Low" (LHTL) model wherein athletes supplemented acclimatization to chronic hypoxia with high-intensity training at low altitude. Purpose: This review discusses important considerations for successful implementation of LHTL camps in elite athletes based on experiences, both published and unpublished, of the authors. Approach: The originality of our approach is to discuss 10 key "lessons learned," since the seminal work by Levine and Stray-Gundersen was published in 1997, and focusing on (1) optimal dose, (2) individual responses, (3) iron status, (4) training-load monitoring, (5) wellness and well-being monitoring, (6) timing of the intervention, (7) use of natural versus simulated hypoxia, (8) robustness of adaptative mechanisms versus performance benefits, (9) application for a broad range of athletes, and (10) combination of methods. Successful LHTL strategies implemented by Team USA athletes for podium performance at Olympic Games and/or World Championships are presented. Conclusions: The evolution of the LHTL model represents an essential framework for sport science, in which field-driven questions about performance led to critical scientific investigation and subsequent practical implementation of a unique approach to altitude training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the introduction of a national system for upper-secondary sport schools in Sweden in the 1970s, these institutions have been an important environment for developments in training and coaching. This is particularly true for cross-country skiing, where these schools quickly became an obligatory passage point. Coaches at the sport schools, often formally employed as PE teachers, were among the first professionalized endurance sport coaches in Sweden. This article examines how communities of practice have influenced the professionalization process of XC ski coaches at Swedish sport schools. The results show how being part of this community is conditioned on personal experience of active learning, historically as a skier yourself and currently as a coach who participates in the everyday work. The strong communities of practice have enabled coaches to maintain a high degree of self--governance and ensured that experiential knowledge remain important in relation to scientific knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated within-subject variability in the circulating metabolome under controlled conditions, and whether divergent exercise training backgrounds were associated with alterations in the circulating metabolome assessed in resting samples. Thirty-seven men comprising of endurance athletes (END; body mass, 71.0 ± 6.8 kg; fat-free mass index, 16.9 ± 1.1 kg/m²), strength athletes (STR; 94.5 ± 8.8 kg; 23.0 ± 1.8 kg/m²), and recreationally active controls (CON; 77.6 ± 7.7 kg; 18.1 ± 1.0 kg/m²) provided blood samples after an overnight fast on two separate occasions controlled for time of day of sampling, recent dietary intake, time since last meal, and time since last exercise training session. A targeted profile of metabolites, performed using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry on plasma samples, identified 166 individual metabolites and metabolite features, which were analyzed with intraclass correlation coefficients, a multilevel principal component analysis, and univariate t tests adjusted for multiple comparisons. The median intraclass correlation coefficient was .49, with 46 metabolites displaying good reliability and 31 metabolites displaying excellent reliability. No difference in the abundance of any individual metabolite was identified within groups when compared between visits, but a combined total of 44 metabolites were significantly different (false discovery rate <0.05) between groups (END vs. CON, 42 metabolites; STR vs. CON, 10 metabolites; and END vs. STR, five metabolites). Under similar measurement conditions, the reliability of resting plasma metabolite concentrations varies largely at the level of individual metabolites with ~48% of metabolites displaying good-to-excellent reliability. However, a history of exercise training was associated with alterations in the abundance of ~28% of metabolites in the targeted profile employed in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Force production is crucial in football, and it is the main limitation of people with cerebral palsy (CP). This study aimed to describe the changes in sprint force–velocity (Fv) profile after a period of 25 weeks of regular training in international football players with CP. Methods: The sprint Fv profile and other physical performance variables (ie, linear sprint, vertical jump, change of direction, and intermittent endurance) of 14 international players from the Spanish national team were assessed during 2 consecutive training camps. Pretesting and posttesting sessions were carried out 1 week before and after the 25-week intervention period. The intervention consisted of 2 strength sessions per week added to the usual football training. Results: The repeated-measures analysis of variance showed changes in players' physical performance (linear sprint: F = 18.05, P <.01; change of direction: F = 16.71, P <.01; and endurance: F = 31.45, P <.01) and in some variables of the sprint Fv profile (maximal horizontal force, maximal power, slope, maximal ratio of force, and decrease of ratio of force; F = 14.28–37.81; P <.01), whereas players' maximal velocity (theoretical and actual) did not change (F = 0.13 and 0.01; P =.72 and.98, respectively). Conclusions: This study showed that the implementation of 2 strength-training sessions per week, for 25 weeks, is effective to improve CP football players' physical performance. The main finding of this study is the improvement of force application in the acceleration phase (sprint Fv profile), which is the main attribute in many physical performance tests and is the main limitation of the CP population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Studies examining post-race emotional experiences in the context of endurance races among recreational athletes are scarce. The purpose of this study was to describe how recreational athletes experience the time after completing an endurance race. Methods In this study, a qualitative study design was used, and data collection was carried out with semi-structured interviews. The selection of subjects was completed systematically through criterion selection. The selection criteria were men and women, aged 18 years or older, who had completed an endurance race, and finished, lasting at least 180 min within the past 12 months. The interviews were analyzed using conventional qualitative content analysis. Results Sixteen recreational endurance athletes who, within six months, had completed an endurance race of running, cycling, cross-country skiing or Ironman, participated and were interviewed. Four overarching themes emerged from the analysis: “High on life”, “Loss of energy, Ambivalence and Melancholy”, “Activity-charged emotions”, and “Dimensions of emotions over time and new goals”, describing the content of the interviews. Conclusions Endurance athletes experienced varied post-race emotions that were both physically and mentally challenging, suggesting a holistic approach to managing post-race emotions would be beneficial. From the athletes’ perspectives, post-race feelings were dependent on many factors, including time spent training for a specific race, and perceived inability to set new goals for an upcoming training period. Setting future goals prior to an event may be a tool for reducing the risk of negative post-race emotions, including post-race blues.

Background: Studies examining post-race emotional experiences in the context of endurance races among recreational athletes are scarce. The purpose of this study was to describe how recreational athletes experience the time after completing an endurance race. Methods: In this study, a qualitative study design was used, and data collection was carried out with semi-structured interviews. The selection of subjects was completed systematically through criterion selection. The selection criteria were men and women, aged 18 years or older, who had completed an endurance race, and finished, lasting at least 180 min within the past 12 months. The interviews were analyzed using conventional qualitative content analysis. Results: Sixteen recreational endurance athletes who, within six months, had completed an endurance race of running, cycling, cross-country skiing or Ironman, participated and were interviewed. Four overarching themes emerged from the analysis: "High on life", "Loss of energy, Ambivalence and Melancholy", "Activity-charged emotions", and "Dimensions of emotions over time and new goals", describing the content of the interviews. Conclusions: Endurance athletes experienced varied post-race emotions that were both physically and mentally challenging, suggesting a holistic approach to managing post-race emotions would be beneficial. From the athletes' perspectives, post-race feelings were dependent on many factors, including time spent training for a specific race, and perceived inability to set new goals for an upcoming training period. Setting future goals prior to an event may be a tool for reducing the risk of negative post-race emotions, including post-race blues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare acute physiological responses and perceived training stress between one long and two short time- and intensity-matched sessions of moderate-intensity training in endurance athletes. Methods: Fourteen male endurance athletes (VO2max: 69.2 ± 4.2 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed one 6 × 10-min interval session (SINGLE) and two 3 × 10-min interval sessions interspersed with 6.5 h recovery (DOUBLE) of moderate-intensity training on two separate days, while running in the laboratory, using a counterbalanced cross-over trial. The two training days were separated into a first part/session (interval stage 1-3) and second part/session (interval stage 4-6). Respiratory variables, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentrations (BLa), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected during sessions, whereas supine heart rate (HR) was assessed in a 60-min recovery period following sessions. Measures of perceived training stress (1-10) were assessed in the morning of the subsequent day. Results: HR, Bla, and RPE increased in the second compared to first part of SINGLE (168 ± 7 vs. 173 ± 7 bpm, 2.60 ± 0.75 vs. 3.01 ± 0.81 mmol·L-1, and 13.4 ± 1.0 vs. 14.8 ± 1.1-point, respectively, all p < 0.05). HR and Bla decreased in the second compared to first session of DOUBLE (171 ± 9 vs. 166 ± 9 bpm and 2.72 ± 0.96 vs. 2.14 ± 0.65 mmol·L-1, respectively, both p < 0.05). SINGLE revealed higher supine HR in the recovery period following sessions (65.4 ± 2.5 vs. 60.7 ± 2.5 bpm p < 0.05), session RPE (sRPE, 7.0 ± 1.0 vs. 6.0 ± 1.3-point, p = .001) and sRPE training load (929 ± 112 vs. 743 ± 98, p < 0.001) compared to DOUBLE. In the subsequent morning, increased levels of perceived fatigue and muscle soreness were observed following SINGLE compared to DOUBLE (7.0 ± 2.5 vs. 8.0 ± 1.0-point, p = .049 and 6.0 ± 2.5 vs. 7.0 ± 2.5-point, p = .002, respectively). Conclusion: One long moderate-intensity training session was associated with a duration-dependent "drift" in physiological responses compared to two short time- and intensity-matched sessions, thereby suggesting a higher overall training stimulus. Simultaneously, the lower cost of the two shorter sessions indicates that such organization could allow more accumulated time at this intensity. Overall, these findings serve as a starting point to better understand the pros and cons of organizing moderate-intensity training as one long versus shorter sessions performed more frequently (e.g., as "double threshold training") in endurance athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ultra-trail running races pose appreciable physiological challenges, particularly for glucose metabolism. Previous studies that yielded divergent results only measured glycaemia at isolated times. Objectives: We aimed to explore the impact of an ultra-endurance race on continuously measured glycaemia and to understand potential physiological mechanisms, as well as the consequences for performance and behavioural alertness. Methods: Fifty-five athletes (78% men, 43.7 ± 9.6 years) ran a 156-km ultra-trail race (six 26-km laps, total elevation 6000 m). Participants wore a masked continuous glucose monitoring sensor from the day before the race until 10 days post-race. Blood was taken at rest, during refuelling stops after each lap, and after 24-h recovery. Running intensity (% heart rate reserve), performance (lap times), psychological stress, and behavioural alertness were explored. Linear mixed models and logistic regressions were carried out. Results: No higher risk of hypo- or hyperglycaemia was observed during the exercise phases of the race (i.e. excluding stops for scientific measurements and refuelling) compared with resting values. Laps comprising a greater proportion of time spent at maximal aerobic intensity were nevertheless associated with more time > 180 mg/dL (P = 0.021). A major risk of hyperglycaemia appeared during the 48-h post-race period compared with pre-race (P < 0.05), with 31.9% of the participants spending time with values > 180 mg/dL during recovery versus 5.5% during resting. Changes in circulating insulin, cortisol, and free fatty acids followed profiles comparable with those usually observed during traditional aerobic exercise. However, creatine phosphokinase, and to a lesser extent lactate dehydrogenase, increased exponentially during the race (P < 0.001) and remained high at 24-h post-race (P < 0.001; respectively 43.6 and 1.8 times higher vs. resting). Glycaemic metrics did not influence physical performance or behavioural alertness. Conclusion: Ultra-endurance athletes were exposed to hyperglycaemia during the 48-h post-race period, possibly linked to muscle damage and inflammation. Strategies to mitigate muscle damage or subsequent inflammation before or after ultra-trail races could limit recovery hyperglycaemia and hence its related adverse health consequences. Trial Registration Number: NCT05538442 2022–09-21 retrospectively registered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]