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Electro technical kits have many positive effects in school education, suitably supplement as well as support it, and are also one of its subject matters. Considering the fast, global development information technology is experiencing, there is a growing need to combine computer systems and electro technical kits in education. This assists in the process of digitization, too, which asserts itself in the conditions set for educating children as early as in nursery schools. The constructivist concept of education is based on the activities of students which lead to the development of their cognitive skills, thinking, and creativity; the issues of motivation, activity, independence, creativity, and humanizing education are appreciated; respect is given to the notion that students interpret new facts on the basis of understanding what they learned previously; of their existing knowledge and experiences. These mental structures constitute patterns which serve as a foundation for new, constructed knowledge. When a teacher assumes the constructivist approach to education, they assess and diagnose the students' dispositions and attitudes to the expected content and to the manner of its processing. Subsequently, the teacher adapts their approach to these results. It is the teacher's responsibility to establish suitable conditions and materials for education to take place, to make it easier for students to construct new knowledge as a part of their education, to respect their individual traits and pace, ensure that the students are active, and combine their knowledge with activities and skills -- all of this can be ideally combined by using of electro technical kits. The paper presents the results of past research surveys which were conducted in relation to incorporating electrical engineering into education, and of the effectiveness of the implemented education in the practical reality of teaching which includes using electro technical kits as one of the basic didactic training tools in this sphere of technics. One subject of discussion also includes the condition/the current state of implementing education in the primary school environment.

Researchers have pinpointed recognition from others as one of the most important dimensions of students' science and engineering identity. Studies, however, have found gender biases in students' recognition of their peers, with inconsistent patterns across introductory science and engineering courses. Toward finding the source of this variation, we examine whether a gender bias exists in students' nominations of strong peers across three different remote, introductory physics courses with varying student populations (varying demographics, majors, and course levels). We also uniquely evaluate possible racial or ethnic biases and probe the relationship between instructional context (whether lecture or laboratory) and recognition. Some of our results replicate previous findings (such as the association of course grade and small class section enrollment with nominations), while others offer contradictions. Comparing across our three courses and the prior work, results suggest that course level (whether first-year students or beyond-first-year students) might be more associated with a gender bias in peer recognition than other variables. Surprisingly, we also find instances of racial or ethnic biases in favor of students from backgrounds historically underrepresented in science. Finally, we find that the nomination patterns differ when students nominate individuals strong in the lecture material versus the laboratory material. This work serves as an important step in determining which courses and contexts exhibit biases in peer recognition, as well as how students' perceptions of one another form in remote teaching environments.

Hands-on labs are a critical component of biomedical engineering undergraduate education. Due to both the pandemic and the growing interest in online education, we developed a Do-it-yourself Electrocardiogram (DIY EKG) project. The Arduino-based DIY EKG kit instructed students how to build a circuit to obtain their own EKG and then analyze their EKG data using Matlab. Despite the obstacles of virtually trouble-shooting, 85.4% of students (n = 103) were able to obtain their own EKG at home. We have provided the labelled circuit drawings, step-by-step instructions, Matlab files, and results in this paper. Survey results indicate that 89% of students felt the DIY EKG project was a "challenging yet fulfilling experience."

Contribution: This paper has demonstrated that the use of blended learning in an electrical machines course has increased student engagement, pass rate, and scores across the GPA spectrum. Background: Lack of engagement by students in electric machine courses have been reported across the world. Interventions however, usually take the form of laboratory and simulation assignments. There is little information on, however, the use of blended learning and flipped classroom techniques to combat these problems. Intended Outcomes: Increased engagement in the course evidenced by exam performance. In particular, for the transformer, dc motor, induction motor, and synchronous motor the students should be able to explain the construction and principle of operation, and compute voltages, currents and power for various operating conditions. Application Design: The approach involved online lectures, tutorial submissions, and peer feedback forums followed by face to face tutorial sessions. These were chosen because online activities would allow students to access material on devices with which they are accustomed to engaging deeply and because peer feedback has been shown to build community, and increase the quality of discourse for both students and lecturer. Findings: There was a significant improvement in exam performance when compared to previous years. The pass rate of the course moved from approximately 60% in previous years to 86%. The class average mark also increased from approximately 50% in previous years to 63%.

A simple and economical system that allows one to obtain the characteristic "I-V" curve in solar cells is presented. It is a computer-controlled system suitable as an instrumentation project for students who are learning about photovoltaic systems. This system is based on the use of an "R-3R" ladder circuit as a variable resistive load for a solar cell and is controlled by a microcontroller system connected to a PC. The system allows us to generate the "I-V" curve and calculates the parameters "I"[subscript sc], "V"[subscript oc], "P"[subscript max].

In this paper, a course on applied superconductivity is described. The course structure is outlined and the learning objectives and the learning activities are described. The teaching was multidisciplinary given by four departments each contributing with their expertise. Being applied superconductivity, the focus was on an application, which could benefit from using superconductors. The application used in this course was superconducting generators for direct drive wind turbines. As part of the course, the students built a small-scale superconducting machine and set up FE (finite element) models of that machine as well as large-scale wind turbine generators with superconductors and PM (permanent magnet) generators, too. The course was assessed by a conference contribution and reports from the students. The quality of the course was evaluated by interviewing the students after the course had finished. The students were very pleased with the course and gave suggestions of how the course could be improved further. (Contains 1 table and 9 figures.)

Students with multiple disabilities, such as severe to profound mental retardation combined with motor and visual impairment, are usually unable to engage in constructive activity or play a positive role in their daily context. Microswitches are technical tools that may help them improve their status by allowing them to control environmental events with small and simple responses suitable to their condition. Recently, a pilot study was conducted to assess such a program with a boy who had multiple disabilities, including total blindness and minimal motor behavior. The results were encouraging, in that the boy became quite active and chose stimuli he was expected to prefer and bypassed those he was not, thus exhibiting purposeful choice behavior. The present study reported in this paper served as a replication and extension of the pilot study, with two new students who had multiple disabilities. These students relied on a vocalization response to activate the microswitch as opposed to the eyebrow movements used in the pilot study. A computer system was used to handle sets of expected preferred and nonpreferred stimuli: it presented brief samples of the stimuli and eventually turned them on for longer periods of time if students selected them. The results of this study found encouraging evidence for the possibility of using specifically developed microswitch programs to enable individuals with minimal residual vision, limited motor behavior, and circumscribed intellectual ability to choose among environmental stimuli. Further research may help determine the generalizability of these results and assess ways of integrating different microswitch programs into the daily educational schedule of such individuals.

Charging a capacitor with a photovoltaic module is an experiment which reveals a lot about the modules characteristics. It is customary to represent these characteristics with an equivalent circuit whose elements represent its physical parameters. The behavior of a photovoltaic module is very similar to that of a single cell but the electric energy involved is much higher, which represents a major challenge for their characterization. In this work, an experiment is conducted to test out this behavior and in addition to obtain the module "I-V" characteristic curve. The experiment is simple and only common instrumentation is required.

Measuring voltage-current and voltage-power curves of a photovoltaic module is a nice experiment for high school and undergraduate students. In labs where real sunlight is not available this experiment requires a solar simulator. A prototype of a simulator using LED lamps has been manufactured and tested, and a comparison with classical halogen simulators has been performed. It is found that LED light offers lower levels of irradiance, but much better performance in terms of module output for a given irradiance.

Existing methods for collecting and analyzing nasality data are problematic for linguistic fieldworkers: aerodynamic equipment can be expensive and difficult to transport, and acoustic analyses require large amounts of optimally-recorded data. In this paper, a highly mobile and low-cost method is proposed. By connecting low impedance earbuds into a microphone jack of a recording device and placing one earbud immediately below one nostril while keeping the other earbud by the mouth, it is possible to capture the relative intensity of sound exiting the nasal and oral cavities. The two channels can then be normalized to assess the relative prominence of nasality and orality in a given speech sound. This method can not only be used to establish whether nasality is present in a speech signal, but it can also provide information about the timing and duration of nasal gestures. As such, it is an ideal tool for collecting high-quality nasality data in the field.

This study examines the causal reasoning that university students use to explain how dc circuits work. We analyze how students use the concepts of electric field and potential difference in their explanatory models of dc circuits, and what kinds of reasoning they use at the macroscopic and microscopic levels in their explanations. This knowledge is essential to help instructors design and implement new teaching approaches that encourage students to articulate the macroscopic and microscopic levels of description. A questionnaire with an emphasis on explanations was used to analyze students' reasoning. In this analysis of students' reasoning in the microscopic and macroscopic modeling processes in a dc circuit, we refer to epistemological studies of scientific explanations. We conclude that the student explanations fall into three main categories of reasoning. The vast majority of students employ an explanatory model based on simple or linear causality and on relational reasoning. Moreover, around a third of students use a relational reasoning that relates two magnitudes current and resistance or conductivity of the material, which is included in a macroscopic explanatory model based on Ohm's law and the conservation of the current. In addition, few students situate the explanations at the microscopic level (charges or electrons) with unidirectional cause-effect reasoning. This study looks at a number of aspects that have been little mentioned in previous research at the university level, about the reasoning types students use when establishing macro-micro relationships and some possible difficulties with complex reasoning.

This paper presents a series of course modules developed as a high-impact and cost-effective learning tool for modeling and simulating the microfabrication process and design of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices using three-dimensional (3-D) printing. Microfabrication technology is an established fabrication technique for small and high-precision MEMS devices; these processes typically take place in a cleanroom with the use of expensive high-vacuum equipment. These course modules were developed to provide engineering educators a more affordable and effective method for teaching MEMS modeling in settings without a cleanroom, as is the case in many undergraduate institutions. Feedback from student evaluations as well as course grades all support the efficacy of these course modules. In these hands-on modules, by designing and building the MEMS prototypes, the students learn by experiencing the process of building a MEMS device from the specifications given. The results are also compared to similar assessments made in the course before the introduction of these course modules to verify success. The detailed description of the modules, the evaluation methodologies adopted, and reflections on the implementation are discussed.

Creative learning is discussed with respect to a specific physics topic. A teaching example, based on an apparatus that demonstrates the standard dynamo model of geomagnetism, is presented. It features many of the basic physics concepts within the syllabus of electromagnetism at high-school and university. To stimulate conceptual learning and to invite student explorations, the apparatus is designed to exhibit simplicity and transparency. Due to the connection to natural phenomena and to engineering applications it promotes a holistic view of physics. The apparatus is therefore useful for practising creative learning.

The design of the drive system for an automatic machine and its correct sizing is a very important competence for an electrical or mechatronic engineer. This requires knowledge that crosses the fields of electrical engineering, electronics and mechanics, as well as the skill to choose commercial components based upon their technical documentation. A good way to help students to achieve these competencies is to set them a project-oriented task, consisting of a real case study they have to solve. The aim is to give to students enrolled in the courses "Functional Mechanical Design" and "Dynamics of Machines" at the Polytechnic of Milan, Milan, Italy, the opportunity to put their knowledge and skills into practice on a real industrial case regarding the design of an automatic machine, with particular attention being paid to the problem of the analysis and synthesis of the drive system. (Contains 12 figures, 2 tables and 2 footnotes.)

This paper presents a low-cost hands-on experiment for a classical undergraduate controls course for non-electrical engineering majors. The setup consists of a small dc electrical motor attached to one of the ends of a light rod. The motor drives a 2-in propeller and allows the rod to swing. Angular position is measured by a potentiometer attached to the pivot point. A custom-designed circuit board produces the controlled voltage input to the motor. The target board is powered and communicates with the PC through its USB port using a virtual RS-232 port. A simple MATLAB/Simulink module has been created to read the pendulum angle and send a command signal to the motor. The module is based on Real-time Windows Target software, which allows a sampling rate of up to 200 Hz. Students are able to design and test classical PID and phase lead-lag controllers, as well as modern controllers, including state-space controller design combined with feedback linearization. A semester-long series of assignments is described that can be carried out without the need for a specialized laboratory or teaching assistants. The project was tested in a classical control systems design class of senior-level mechanical engineering students. Student feedback and survey data on the effectiveness of the modules are also presented. (Contains 15 figures, 1 table and 1 footnote.)

This paper describes the goals, pedagogical system, and educational outcomes of a three-semester curriculum in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The sequence takes engineering students with no formal MEMS training and gives them the skills to participate in cutting-edge MEMS research and development. The evolution of the curriculum from in-house fabrication facilities to an industry-standard foundry process affords an opportunity to examine the pedagogical benefits of the latter approach. Outcomes that are assessed include the number of students taking the classes, the quality of work produced by students, and the research that has emanated from class projects. Three key elements of the curriculum are identified: 1) extensive use of virtual design and process simulation software tools; 2) fabrication of student-designed devices for physical characterization and testing; and 3) integration of a student design competition. This work strongly leveraged the university outreach activities of Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) and the SNL SUMMiT MEMS design and fabrication system. SNL provides state-of-the-art design tools and device fabrication and hosts a yearly nationwide student design competition. Student MEMS designs developed using computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA) software are fabricated at SNL and returned on 18-mm[superscript 2] die modules for characterization and testing. One such module may contain a dozen innovative student projects. Important outcomes include an increase in enrollment in the introductory MEMS class, external research funding and archival journal publications arising from student designs, and consistently high finishes in the SNL competition. Since the SNL offerings are available to any US college or university, this curriculum is transportable in its current form. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Complex multistep problem exercises are one way to enhance engineering students' learning of electromagnetics (EM). This study investigates whether exposure to complex problem exercises during an introductory EM course improves students' conceptual and procedural knowledge. The performance in complex problem exercises is compared to prior success in pre-engineering mathematics and physics courses and with success in the final exam. Students' conceptual knowledge is evaluated with the Conceptual Survey of Electricity and Magnetism (CSEM). The data (N =133) are collected from an undergraduate static field theory course at Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland. The data are analyzed using correlation and linear regression. The study shows that the complex problem exercises do not improve conceptual understanding of EM. However, complex problem exercises significantly enhance the students' procedural knowledge. In addition, students found problem exercises useful and relevant for their learning. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Electrospinning has been used to create nanofibers for filtration devices, tissue engineering, and protective clothing. Although electrospinning is now widely studied, because of the expensive equipment required and the advanced nature of this topic, it is not commonly found in high school science labs. Through grants from the Ohio State University and the National Science Foundation (NSF), the author was able to obtain the necessary equipment and adapt it for use in the high school science classroom. This article describes the authors' experience with electrospinning in an 11th- and 12th-grade Honors Physics class. (Contains 3 figures and 1 online resource.)

This paper discusses the planning and development of student training and activities for the Powerline Communications Laboratory at the Technical Education Institute (TEI), Patras, Greece. Powerline communications is currently an active area of research and development that combines three separate specializations from the standard training of electrical engineers: communications, power, and control systems. A course on powerline communications toward the end of the standard electrical engineer's training provides a useful practice in applying what the students have already been taught in an area that has high potential in modern consumer electronics. The planning of suitable training activities for the students takes into account their background and training at that stage of the course and combines concepts and practices common to communication, power, and control systems. In detail, the training activities involve: (1) familiarization and training with currently available market products for automation/control and broadband powerline communications; (2) open-source software that can be used in the design and simulation of such systems; and (3) fabrication and testing of simple passive filter circuits that can be used for signal coupling into the mains power lines for custom applications. (Contains 5 figures, 3 tables, and 10 footnotes.)

Ac-powered contactors are extensively used in industry in applications such as automatic electrical devices, motor starters, and heaters. In this work, a practical session that allows students to model and simulate the dynamic behavior of ac-powered electromechanical contactors is presented. Simulation is carried out using a rigorous parametric model of the ac contactor that avoids simplification assumptions and is thoroughly explained. The goal of this practical is to introduce students to the topic of dynamic simulation of real devices. It covers both the transient and the steady-state response of the electromechanical system under study. The proposed methodology is flexible and not particularly time-consuming, and it allows the students easily to change the electromechanical constants of the contactor they are studying. The results of the simulations were compared with experimental data acquired by the students; a close similarity between real and simulated data was observed. The Technical University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain, has incorporated the simulation methodology proposed in this paper in a practical session of an electrical engineering course. (Contains 12 figures.)

If we aim to enhance the interest of students in engineering and therefore produce the best engineers, it is essential to strengthen the pipeline to high school education. This paper discusses several outreach activities undertaken by the Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa (UO), Ottawa, ON, Canada, to help the transition between high school and engineering education and to make students aware of the engineering profession. At the heart of these activities is mechatronics education, which demands an interdisciplinary approach, connects to fundamental math and science concepts, and promotes collaborative project-based learning (PBL). Connected to this focus, a multifaceted program of outreach activities has been initiated. The program includes creation of design-simulate-and-build projects by engineering and high school students, as well as an interactive presentation program whereby engineering students connect with high school students through the sharing of projects that they create in their engineering courses. The survey results indicate that for the high school students, these programs promote students' awareness of engineering and how the mathematics and science they take in school connects to engineering concepts. For the engineering students, they are provided with a meaningful context within which to share their projects and explain their own understanding of engineering principles. (Contains 4 tables.)

Prior semantic knowledge facilitates episodic recognition memory for faces. To examine the neural manifestation of the interplay between semantic and episodic memory, we investigated neuroelectric dynamics during the creation (study) and the retrieval (test) of episodic memories for famous and nonfamous faces. Episodic memory effects were evident in several EEG frequency bands: theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (9-13 Hz), and gamma (40-100 Hz). Activity in these bands was differentially modulated by preexisting semantic knowledge and by episodic memory, implicating their different functional roles in memory. More specifically, theta activity and alpha suppression were larger for old compared to new faces at test regardless of fame, but were both larger for famous faces during study. This pattern of selective semantic effects suggests that the theta and alpha responses, which are primarily associated with episodic memory, reflect utilization of semantic information only when it is beneficial for task performance. In contrast, gamma activity decreased between the first (study) and second (test) presentation of a face, but overall was larger for famous than nonfamous faces. Hence, the gamma rhythm seems to be primarily related to activation of preexisting neural representations that may contribute to the formation of new episodic traces. Taken together, these data provide new insights into the complex interaction between semantic and episodic memory for faces and the neural dynamics associated with mnemonic processes.

Attaining excellence in technical education is a worthy challenge to any life goal. Distance learning opportunities make these goals easier to reach with added quality. Distance learning in engineering education is possible only through successful implementations of remote laboratories in a learning-by-doing environment. This paper presents one such technology to carry out laboratory experiments from remote locations. The technology is demonstrated by handling the web interface, which supports the remote experimentation on communication circuits, power system and an embedded board. The implemented system environment facilitates users to perform the experiment remotely and efficiently using only a commonly available, user-friendly web browser. It describes the ongoing research in this area exploiting current telematics techniques, which supports remote experimentation with real hardware via the Internet. (Contains 8 figures and 6 tables.)

In this paper, a pedagogical software for the design and analysis of loudspeaker systems is presented, with emphasis on training students in the interaction between system parameters. Loudspeakers are complex electromechanical system, whose behavior is neither intuitive nor easy to understand by inexperienced students. Although commercial simulation software provides computation of the equations governing loudspeaker systems, they are mainly focused on the final product and are intended for experienced audio engineers. The proposed software was intentionally designed for education and training purposes. This software allows students to investigate loudspeaker systems that involve complex interactions by illustrating their effects in real time, both in a graphical interface and in numeric values. Unlike other academic simulation tools in the technical literature, students can modify the system parameters, both graphically and numerically, and observe their impact on the loudspeaker responses: pressure, diaphragm behavior, and electrical impedance. Results obtained during two academic semesters showed educational improvement by comparing the outcomes generated by a commercial software and by the designed tool. Students reported very positive attitudes toward this experience and perceived their interaction with the simulation as being generally effective in improving their skills in dealing with loudspeaker system interaction. (Contains 2 tables, 11 figures, and 2 footnotes.)

This paper details a successful and inexpensive implementation of a remote laboratory into a distance control systems course using readily available hardware and software. The physical experiment consists of a beach ball and a dc blower; the control objective is to make the height of the aerodynamically levitated beach ball track a reference trajectory by manipulating the voltage to the blower. MATLAB/Simulink coupled with xPC target serve as the controller platform, while Microsoft NetMeeting and standard Internet video conferencing equipment are used to interface the distance-learning students with the laboratory equipment. Both local students at North Carolina State University's campus in Raleigh and distance students at the University of North Carolina at Asheville completed the laboratory experiment. In a student survey, distance students participating in the lab remotely rated the experience as favorably as local students. Course grades, including the design project grade, were similar between the two groups. (Contains 3 tables and 9 figures.)

The Internet provides an opportunity for students to access laboratories from outside the campus. This paper presents a Web-based remote access real-time laboratory using SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) control. The control of an induction motor is used as an example to demonstrate the effectiveness of this remote laboratory, using real instruments (a two-level inverter, measurement equipment, a magnetic powder brake and an ac/dc converter). A programmable logic controller (PLC) was programmed to control the operation of the system and a SCADA system was installed to monitor and control of the process. Some limitations were placed on the PLC program to protect the motor from overloading and going over maximum speed. The remote laboratory presented here offers an economical solution for multiple users in a laboratory environment. This system allows the students to access real instruments in a real laboratory via the Internet. Additionally, the suggested architecture helps improve students' skills on SCADA systems in use in industry. The Web interface was designed using Visual Studio with ASP.NET, which allows students to access the lab and information about the experiment. (Contains 9 figures.)

A microelectro-mechanical systems (MEMS) laboratory course (MEMSlab) in the Mechanical and Process Engineering Department at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich), is presented. The course has been taught for four years and has been attended primarily by Master's students from mechanical and electrical engineering; since fall 2006, the course has been required within the Master of Micro and Nanosystems curriculum. Students participating in the MEMSlab course learn the operational principles of comb-structure accelerometers, as well as how to fabricate, package, and test single-axis accelerometers, thereby being exposed to the multiple disciplines and practical topics that are involved in the production of MEMS and microelectronics. Based upon the course assessments, which are summarized and discussed, one of the benefits of MEMSlab is the course format. This format, which includes a dedicated course text, referred to as the "script," and two introductory lecture sessions, has allowed students without prior semiconductor physics or process experience to participate fully in the course and to learn the major elements of MEMS fabrication. The MEMSlab course provides students at the ETH Zurich with their sole opportunity to experience clean room microfabrication through a structured course setting, since there are no other solid-state device fabrication laboratory courses offered at the ETH Zurich. (Contains 9 tables and 8 figures.)

With the widespread digitization of art, photography, and music, plus the introduction of streaming video, many colleges and universities are realizing that they must develop or purchase systems to preserve their school's digitized objects; that they must create searchable databases so that researchers can find and share copies of digital files; that they must track access control and permissions information; and that they need to integrate multimedia with learning management systems. Although today there is a wide range of commercial solutions available (each of which can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars), there is also a thriving open source community called Fedora Commons (www.fedora-commons.org), targeting digital asset management in higher education. Yet a few years ago, neither proprietary nor open data asset management (DAM) solutions existed. This article takes a look at how different universities such as the University of Michigan, The Johns Hopkins University, and Gallaudet University create their DAM systems.

To examine the neural correlates and timing of human visual awareness, we recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in two experiments while the observers were detecting a grey dot that was presented near subjective threshold. ERPs were averaged for conscious detections of the stimulus (hits) and nondetections (misses) separately. Our results revealed that hits, as compared to misses, showed a negativity around 180-350 ms at occipital and posterior temporal sites. It was followed by a positive wave after 400-500 ms, peaking at parietal sites. These correlates were not affected by a manipulation of attention. The early negativity, called "visual awareness negativity" (VAN), may be a general, primary electrophysiological correlate of visual awareness. The present data show that it can be observed in response to appearance of a stimulus in visual awareness and that it generalizes across different manipulations of stimulus visibility.

The technology of satellite imagery and remote sensing adds a new dimension to teaching and learning about maps with elementary school children. Just a click of the mouse brings into view some images of the world that could only be imagined a generation ago. Close-up aerial pictures of the school and neighborhood quickly catch the interest of young children and nurture their sense of wonder about where things are and how they got there. At first thought, aerial imagery may seem too complicated to use as a teaching tool for mapping in elementary school. Yet aerial imagery is already a part of the pop culture. This article discusses a geography unit of study that uses aerial imagery and art to increase geographic literacy among second-grade students in four elementary schools in Texas. The lessons can specifically address four Texas state learning standards for second-grade essential knowledge and skills: direction, distance, location, and symbols. Students are expected to be able to determine direction, measure distances, find locations, identify map symbols, understand characteristics of places, and describe ways in which people have modified the environment. (Contains 13 notes.)