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Currently, in the Russian Federation, economic development largely depends on the implementation of national projects and government programs adopted by the president and government. The federal executive bodies are developing specific goals and objectives of strategic planning affecting almost all areas of the economy, as well as a set of various measures with established indicators for the timing of their implementation and the resources necessary for their implementation. State programs are divided into 5 areas, each of which is responsible for a specific area. The state program “Providing affordable and comfortable housing and utilities for citizens of the Russian Federation” is part of a major area of “New Quality of Life” under which projects are being implemented in the field of social policy and construction. This article presents an assessment of the goals and objectives set in the state program “Providing affordable and comfortable housing and utilities for citizens of the Russian Federation”, analyzes the results of achieving the goals, considers examples of foreign practices and techniques in this area, and presents possible actions to reduce risks failure to achieve program targets.

The phenology of many species shows strong sensitivity to climate change; however, with few large scale intra-specific studies it is unclear how such sensitivity varies over a species’ range. We document large intra-specific variation in phenological sensitivity to temperature using laying date information from 67 populations of two European songbirds covering a large part of their breeding range. Populations inhabiting deciduous habitats showed stronger phenological sensitivity compared with those in evergreen and mixed habitats. Strikingly, however, the lowest sensitivity was seen in populations that had experienced the greatest change in climate. Therefore, we predict that the strongest phenological advancement will not occur in those populations with the highest sensitivity. Our results show that to effectively assess the impact of climate change on phenology across a species range it will be necessary to account for intra-specific variation in phenological sensitivity, climate change exposure, and the ecological characteristics of a population.

Many organisms adjust their reproductive phenology in response to climate change, but phenological sensitivity to temperature may vary between species. For example, resident and migratory birds have vastly different annual cycles, which can cause differential temperature sensitivity at the breeding grounds, and may affect competitive dynamics. Currently, however, adjustment to climate change in resident and migratory birds have been studied separately or at relatively small geographical scales with varying time series durations and methodologies. Here, we studied differential effects of temperature on resident and migratory birds using the mean egg laying initiation dates from 10 European nest box schemes between 1991 and 2015 that had data on at least one resident tit species and at least one migratory flycatcher species. We found that both tits and flycatchers advanced laying in response to spring warming, but resident tit populations advanced more strongly in relation to temperature increases than migratory flycatchers. These different temperature responses have already led to a divergence in laying dates between tits and flycatchers of on average 0.94 days per decade over the current study period. Interestingly, this divergence was stronger at lower latitudes where the interval between tit and flycatcher phenology is smaller and winter conditions can be considered more favorable for resident birds. This could indicate that phenological adjustment to climate change by flycatchers is increasingly hampered by competition with resident species. Indeed, we found that tit laying date had an additional effect on flycatcher laying date after controlling for temperature, and this effect was strongest in areas with the shortest interval between both species groups. Combined, our results suggest that the differential effect of climate change on species groups with overlapping breeding ecology affects the phenological interval between them, potentially affecting interspecific interactions., T.E. acknowledges the funding by the Academy of Finland (project 265859). MM and RM were financially supported by the Estonian Research Council (institutional research funding IUT number 34‐8). I.K. received financial support from the Estonian Ministry of Education and Science (grant PUT1223). The data collection in Russia was financially supported by RSF grant number 14‐50‐00029. JP was supported by projects CGL2014‐55969‐P and CGL2015‐70639‐P of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

A specific interest in the persistence of color polymorphism in some populations of birds and other vertebrates is often linked to ideas about the signaling honesty of bright coloration. The evolution of conspicuous ornamentation could be associated with physiological costs including limitations of the immune system. The study of this process is crucial for an understanding of the maintenance of polymorphic coloration. Here we summarized the results of a study of a pied flycatcher population from the Moscow region (Russia) in 2010–2013. We experimentally induced antibody production by injecting sheep red blood cells (SRBC) and inflammatory swelling by injecting phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) after which we estimated the immune response in breeding males. We used leucocytes-to-erythrocytes and heterophils-to-lymphocytes (H/L) ratios as indicators of infectious, inflammatory processes and stress. The results showed that the feeding rates of males treated with SRBC decreased and negatively related to the intensity of their immune responses. Non-molting males of different color types did not significantly differ in antibody production. Among molting breeders, the immune response to SRBC was significantly higher in pale males than in bright ones with rich melanin-based coloration. In contrast to non-molting males, molting pale males had an increased antibody titer after immunization. The lower humoral immune response was associated with the higher H/L stress index before immunization. The change in H/L after immunization positively correlated with the intensity of the humoral immune response. As opposed to humoral immunity, we did not find any significant predictors, including coloration, molt, or their two-way interaction, to explain the variation in cutaneous inflammatory response to PHA. The results suggest that the apparent advantage of a cryptic male phenotype over a conspicuous phenotype occurring in one of two types of immune response has an impact on the maintenance of color polymorphism in the pied flycatcher.

The integration and synthesis of the data in different areas of science is drastically slowed and hindered by a lack of standards and networking programmes. Long-term studies of individually marked animals are not an exception. These studies are especially important as instrumental for understanding evolutionary and eco-logical processes in the wild. Furthermore, their number and global distribution provides a unique opportunity to assess the generality of patterns and to address broad-scale global issues (e.g. climate change)., To solve data integration issues and enable a new scale of ecological and evolution-ary research based on long-term studies of birds, we have created the SPI-Birds Network and Database (www.spibirds.org)—a large-scale initiative that connects data from, and researchers working on, studies of wild populations of individually recognizable (usually ringed) birds. Within year and a half since the establishment, SPI-Birds has recruited over 120 members, and currently hosts data on almost 1.5 million individual birds collected in 80 populations over 2,000 cumulative years, and counting., SPI-Birds acts as a data hub and a catalogue of studied populations. It prevents data loss, secures easy data finding, use and integration and thus facilitates collab-oration and synthesis. We provide community-derived data and meta-data stand-ards and improve data integrity guided by the principles of Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR), and aligned with the existing metadata lan-guages (e.g. ecological meta-data language)., The encouraging community involvement stems from SPI-Bird's decentralized ap-proach: research groups retain full control over data use and their way of data management, while SPI-Birds creates tailored pipelines to convert each unique data format into a standard format. We outline the lessons learned, so that other communities (e.g. those working on other taxa) can adapt our successful model. Creating community-specific hubs (such as ours, COMADRE for animal demogra-phy, etc.) will aid much-needed large-scale ecological data integration., The SPI-Birds have been supported by an NWO personal grant (grant number 016.Veni.181.054) to A.C., and a Research Council of Norway grant: 223257 (SFF-III) and 267511 (EVOCLIM).

A major aim of evolutionary biology is to understand why patterns of genomic variation vary among populations and species. Large-scale genomic studies of widespread species are useful for studying how the environment and demographic history shape patterns of genomic divergence, and with the continually decreasing cost of sequencing, such studies are now becoming feasible. Here, we carry out one of the most comprehensive surveys of genomic variation in a wild vertebrate to date; the great tit ( Parus major ) HapMap project. We screened ca 500,000 SNP markers across 647 individuals from 29 populations, spanning almost the entire geographic range of the European great tit subspecies. We found that genome-wide variation was consistent with a recent colonisation across Europe from a single refugium in the Balkans and/or Turkey, with bottlenecks and reduced genetic diversity in island populations. Differentiation across the genome was highly heterogeneous, with clear “islands of differentiation” even among populations which are ostensibly panmictic. These islands of differentiation were consistently found in regions of low recombination, suggesting that background selection can rapidly promote population differentiation among even the most recently colonised populations. We also detected genomic outlier regions that were unique to peripheral great tit populations, most likely as a result of recent directional selection at the range edges of this species. These “unique” outlier regions contained candidate genes for morphology, thermal adaptation and colouration, supporting previous research in this species, and providing avenues for future investigation. Our study suggests that comprehensive screens of genomic variation in wild organisms can provide unique insights into evolution. Author summary Studying patterns of genetic variation is a useful way of determining why populations and species differ in nature. Genetic variation is shaped by natural selection, but also by the present and past size of populations, the amount of migration, and by features of the genome, such as variation in recombination rate, of the organism being studied. Teasing apart the effects of these different processes on genomic diversity is difficult, but one way that this can be achieved is by studying genomic variation across the entire range of a species. We performed a continental-scale analysis of genetic variation in the great tit - a widespread songbird that has been the focus of extensive ecological research. We first used genomic data to reconstruct the historical colonisation of great tits across Europe, and showed that during the last ice age, this species was likely restricted to a single region in Eastern Europe, from which they spread across the continent. We then studied how patterns of variation differ along the genome, and show that recombination rate is a key driver of variation among all populations. Importantly, by comparing many populations we were able to identify genes that have been subject to natural selection in specific geographical regions. We found that natural selection appeared to be strongest in populations on the edges of the great tit’s range acting on traits such as morphology, stress response and colouration. Large-scale genetic analyses such as ours are therefore useful approaches for understanding how evolution operates in the wild.

The relationship between the type of melanin-based plumage colouration and the strength of experimentally induced immune response was studied using as an example a pied flycatcher population from the Moscow region. The breeding plumage of pied flycatcher males exhibits the full spectrum of transitions from contrasting black-and-white to cryptic brownish, the latter being very similar to the colouration of females. In spite of numerous studies, the nature of this polymorphism still remains vague. Unlike many other avian species with monocyclic breeding, a considerable fraction of pied flycatchers overlaps two energy-consuming productive processes, breeding and moult, over the whole species range. During the main experimental treatment we activated the humoral immunity of free-living males in chick-rearing period by injection of nonpathogenic multifactorial antigen (sheep red blood cells, SRBC) and estimated the strength of the immune responses after repeated captures in 6–8 days. In addition, after each capture we evaluated the numbers of leucocytes (WBC), heterophil to lymphocyte ratios (H/L) and measured night time basal metabolic rates (BMR). Non-moulting males of different colour types showed the same immune responses. Among moulting birds, the strength of the immune response was significantly higher in pale males (morphs 4–7 by Drost’s scale) than in bright males with rich melanin-based colouration (morphs 2–3). This difference resulted from two opposite processes. During moulting, pale males heightened the antibody titer after immunization, while bright males tended to reduce the strength of immune response. Possibly such an asymmetry in immunocompetence at the first stage of moult reflects the different life strategies of pied flycatcher males—conspicuous birds less commonly overlap breeding with moult than cryptic ones.

The expression and impact of maternal effects may vary greatly between populations and environments. However, little is known about large-scale geographical patterns of variation in maternal deposition to eggs. In birds, as in other oviparous animals, the outermost maternal component of an egg is the shell, which protects the embryo, provides essential mineral resources and allows its interaction with the environment in the form of gas exchange. In this study, we explored variation of eggshell traits (mass, thickness, pore density and pigmentation) across 15 pied flycatcher populations at a large geographic scale. We found significant between-population variation in all eggshell traits, except in pore density, suggesting spatial variation in their adaptive benefits or in the females' physiological limitations during egg laying. Between- population variation in shell structure was not due to geographic location (latitude and longitude) or habitat type. However, eggshells were thicker in populations that experienced higher ambient temperature during egg laying. This could be a result of maternal resource allocation to the shell being constrained under low temperatures or of an adaptation to reduce egg water loss under high temperatures. We also found that eggshell colour intensity was positively associated with biliverdin pigment concentration, shell thickness and pore density. To conclude, our findings reveal large- scale between-population variation of eggshell traits, although we found little environmental dependency in their expression. Our findings call for further studies that explore other environmental factors (e.g. calcium availability and pollution levels) and social factors like sexual selection intensity that may account for differences in shell structure between populations., This study was financially supported by the former Spanish Ministerio de Innovación y Ciencia (projects CGL2007-61251/BOS and CGL2010-19233-C03-02 to JM, and contract ‘Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios’ to JM, funded by the Spanish Research Council-CSIC and the European Social Fund), Emil AaltonenFoundation in Finland (grant to TL), Finnish Cultural Foundation (grant to SR), Academy of Finland (project 8119367 to TE). EB was financed by a grant for Scientific Schools (NSh-5325.2012.4). Data collection in Moscow region was supported by Russian Fund of Basic Researches (RFBR) and Russian Ministry of Education. RM and VT were supported by the Estonian Ministry of Education and Science (project 0180004s09) and the European Regional Development Fund (Center of Excellence FIBIR).

Repeatability of a trait estimated over long time intervals and its heritability make it possible to assess whether it can serve as an individual characteristic and be subject to selection. Heritability and repeatability of energetic traits are still poorly studied in birds. The most important physiological characteristic of the homoiotherms is the minimal level of energy expenditure, referred to as the resting metabolic rate (RMR), which, in the absence of the expenditure for biomass growth, does not exceed the basal metabolic rate (BMR). We have estimated the BMR repeatability in adult free-living pied flycatchers in Moscow-region (55°44′ N, 36°51′ E; 1992–2008) and Tomsk (56°20′ N, 84°56′ E; 2008–2009) populations over intervals of 40 days to 3 years. In the Moscow-region pied flycatcher population, the BMR repeatability recorded during the same period of the reproductive season was τ = 0.34 ± 0.10 for a 1-year interval (n = 80), τ = 0.60 ± 0.15 for a 2-year interval (n = 19), and τ = 0.85 ± 0.13 for a 3-year interval (n = 6). In the Tomsk population, the BMR repeatability for the 1-year interval was τ = 0.49 ± 0.11 (n = 50). The repeatability of a trait is a measure of its constancy in time and specifies the upper limit of its heritability. RMR heritability was assessed in cross-fostering experiments in the Moscow-region free-living pied flycatcher population in 2003–2005. The RMRs of chicks and BMRs of their biological fathers displayed a positive correlation, whereas no correlation was found between the RMRs of chicks and their foster fathers. The RMR heritability value was h2 = 0.43 ± 0.17 (n = 210). The obtained estimates for repeatability and heritability of fundamental energetic traits in pied fly-catcher are rather high for a physiological trait and suggest the existence of evolutionary stable diversity of the avian population in the BMR.

Sequential tests in an open field (OF) and in an aviary were performed to study the exploration behavior of great tits, Parus major Each aviary of 2×2×2 m included a standard set of objects: trees, feeder, and shelters. Twenty-four aviaries included a single individual, and 49 aviaries included two heterosexual individuals. During the 15-min observation, a number of explored objects, the latent exploration period of each object (the time period from the start of observation to the first visit of each object), and the time period to the onset of feeding were recorded. The exploration rate of each individual was characterized by the sum of all latent periods (CLP). No association between the cumulative locomotor activities in OF and in an aviary was found. Probably, in the complex environment of an aviary, the frequency of directed actions increases, competing with the movement activity. Faster individuals in OF showed a shorter CLP; i.e., they were fast explorers. The exploration rate of a novel environment in the presence of socid partner was unrelated to exploration scores in OF. Interrelations of birds combined in an aviary were dependent on combinations of personality characteristics identified in OF.

Advances in the phenology of organisms are often attributed to climate change, but alternatively, may reflect a publication bias towards advances and may be caused by environmental factors unrelated to climate change. Both factors are investigated using the breeding dates of 25 long-term studied populations of Ficedula flycatchers across Europe. Trends in spring temperature varied markedly between study sites, and across populations the advancement of laying date was stronger in areas where the spring temperatures increased more, giving support to the theory that climate change causally affects breeding date advancement.

Spring temperatures in temperate regions have increased over the past 20 years and many organisms have responded to this increase by advancing the timing of their growth and reproduction. However, not all populations show an advancement of phenology. Understanding why some populations advance and others do not will give us insight into the possible constraints and selection pressures on the advancement of phenology. By combining two decades of data on 24 populations of tits (Parus sp.) from six European countries, we show that the phenological response to large-scale changes in spring temperature varies across a species' range, even between populations situated close to each other. We show that this variation cannot be fully explained by variation in the temperature change during the pre- and post-laying periods, as recently suggested. Instead, we find evidence for a link between rising temperatures and the frequency of second broods, which results in complex shifts in the laying dates of first clutches. Our results emphasize the need to consider links between different life-history parameters in order to predict the ecological consequences of large-scale climate changes.

The lifetime breeding success of male Pied Flycatchers was evaluated over a period of nine years (1991–99). The breeding success of males recorded in at least two breeding seasons, and nesting at least once in the study area, was analysed. The lifespan number of offspring was positively and significantly correlated with longevity. The reproductive investment in the first year of life did not correspond with longevity, and hence nonbreeding males in the first year did not compensate for the losses in fecundity. There were no differences in longevity between dark, intermediate and female-like coloured males. Darker males were less successful in their breeding attempts in the first year than paler birds. Breeding in the first year of life positively influenced the future number of fledglings, and the greater investment in reproduction in this year positively affected future brood size in dark males. Among males successfully breeding in the study area from their first season, dark males reared signi...

From late April to the second 10-day period of June 1994–1999, in 76 unmated males the time-budget was measured during 304 hours in a 6.6 km2 area of mature mixed and coniferous forests near Moscow. In 1999, territorial males were counted at least once per pentade throughout the breeding season in a 35 ha plot with 180 nest-boxes. Dark (grades 2–3 on Drost's scale) and pale (grades 5–7) males had similar levels of singing activity, but in cold weather the former had higher song rates than the latter. The singing activity of all the males was relatively low at the beginning of the season (by the mid-May). Dark males sang mainly from open perches (67.6% of songs, compared with 23.2% for pale males). In dark males visual stimulation compensated for the relatively low acoustic activity in early spring when trees were still lacking leaves. The immediate vicinities of nest-boxes occupied by dark males were visited by females significantly more frequently than those of pale ones.

The costs of exploiting an organism's immune function are expected to form the basis of many life-history trade-offs. However, there has been debate about whether such costs can be paid in energetic and nutritional terms. We addressed this question in a study of wintering, free-living, male great tits by injecting them with a novel, non-pathogenic antigen (sheep red blood cells) and measuring the changes in their basal metabolic rates and various condition indices subsequent to immune challenge. The experiment showed that activation of the immune system altered the metabolic activity and profile of immune cells in birds during the week subsequent to antigen injection: individuals mounting an immune response had nearly 9% higher basal metabolic rates, 8% lower plasma albumin levels and 37% higher heterophile-to-lymphocyte ratios (leucocytic stress indices) than sham-injected control birds. They also lost nearly 3% (0.5 g) of their body mass subsequent to the immune challenge. Individuals that mounted stronger antibody responses lost more mass during the immune challenge. These results suggest that energetic expenditures to immune response may have a non-trivial impact upon an individual's condition.

Geographic variation in phenotypes plays a key role in fundamental evolutionary processes such as local adaptation, population differentiation and speciation, but the selective forces behind it are rarely known. We found support for the hypothesis that geographic variation in plumage traits of the pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca is explained by character displacement with the collared flycatcher Ficedula albicollis in the contact zone. The plumage traits of the pied flycatcher differed strongly from the more conspicuous collared flycatcher in a sympatric area but increased in conspicuousness with increasing distance to there. Phenotypic differentiation (PST) was higher than that in neutral genetic markers (FST), and the effect of geographic distance remained when statistically controlling for neutral genetic differentiation. This suggests that a cline created by character displacement and gene flow explains phenotypic variation across the distribution of this species. The different plumage traits of the pied flycatcher are strongly to moderately correlated, indicating that they evolve non-independently from each other. The flycatchers provide an example of plumage patterns diverging in two species that differ in several aspects of appearance. The divergence in sympatry and convergence in allopatry in these birds provide a possibility to study the evolutionary mechanisms behind the highly divergent avian plumage patterns.